Shared management. Theory and Practice (Northouse) (2023)

This overview is based on the academic year 2013-2014.

Part A: Introduction

The management perspective

People are fascinated by leadership. For example, they wonder what qualities make good leaders possess and try to become better leaders themselves. For this reason, books on management are sold in many stores. Many people believe that improving their leadership skills is beneficial to their social and personal lives, as well as their professional lives. Many companies are specifically looking for people with leadership skills to further develop a company. Today, management is considered from different theoretical approaches. Some scientists explain leadership mainly in terms of personality traits, while other scientists see leadership mainly as a form of information processing. This summary therefore discusses several theoretical approaches. The book's authors see management as a complex process with several dimensions.

Approach

In the academic research literature, the term "leadership" is defined in many different ways. So this word has another meaning for

different people, although we all know roughly what that term means.

• Bass argues that some definitions explain leadership in terms of"focused on group processes".This perspective sees a leader as the center of group change and the person who represents the will of the group.

• Other definitions explain leadership primarily in terms of a"Personality perspective".This perspective sees leadership as a combination of specific personality traits that people can possess. Because of these characteristics, leaders were able to get their followers to complete tasks.

• Other approaches see management as a unit'Wet'or a behavior('To behave').These perspectives explain leadership in terms of how a leader can ensure that changes can be made in the group.

• There are also approaches that understand leadership as a relationship between leaders and followers("balance of power").From this perspective, leaders have the power to influence their followers.

• There are also approaches that see management as a unit"Transformationsproces"So followers can achieve more than what is expected of them.

• Finally, it still exists"Competence perspective".This perspective looks at the knowledge and skills that make someone a good leader.

The definition of leadership

Despite the fact that leadership is often defined differently by different researchers, it can be said that the definition of this word has four main components:

1. Leadership is a process('Procedure').This means that leadership should not be seen as a leader's personality trait, but rather as a transactional event that takes place between a leader and his followers. In this context, we are talking about a process where a leader influences his followers and vice versa.

2. Leadership is about influence("influence").It is about how a leader influences his followers. Leadership cannot exist without influence.

3. Tours take place in groups(the group").Leadership can only exist if a leader can influence others.

4. Leadership is based on achieving common goals('common goal').Leaders focus on individuals working together to achieve a common goal. The term "shared" is used to indicate that the leader and the followers have the same goal. Since the leader also benefits from achieving goals, they will not behave unethically towards their followers.

In this book, people who exercise leadership become leaders("Führer")called. People who are aligned with leadership become followers("Following")called. Both leaders and followers are involved in the leadership process. Followers need leaders, but also vice versa. Leaders are not above their followers and it is important to note that leaders should not behave unethically towards their followers.

draw and process

A distinction is made between two management approaches: (1) management in the form of personality traits ("trait perspective") and (2) management in the form of a process ("process perspective").

• For example, people who believe in the trait perspective say that someone is a born leader. This perspective implies that some people have certain leadership qualities that are innate. These traits can be about appearance (e.g. height), but also personality traits (e.g. extraversion) or other characteristics (e.g. intelligence). So this approach basically says that management'I'The individual has certain innate characteristics.

• The process view says that leadership is about the context of interactions between leaders and followers. Anyone can become a leader by following this approach. In this context, leadership is understood as something that can be learned.

Dedicated and emergent management

Some people are leaders because of their formal position in an organization ("assigned leadership"), while other leaders themselves become leaders through the way group members respond to them ("emerging leadership").

• For example, the director of a companyassigned management.It is not the case that every person who is assigned a leadership position actually becomes a leader. If others see a person as the most influential member of a group or organization, that person may be considered a leader, even if he or she does not have a leadership title.

• You become a leader yourself("emerging leadership")when people in a company accept and support a person's behavior. This type of leadership does not arise from a person's formal position, but from the communication between people. For example, if anyoneis firm and not rigid, and suggests new ideas to the groupIwould like to know what others think, then this increases the chance that others will see this person as a leader. Research also shows that personality plays a large role in spontaneous leadership. Dominant and intelligent men who are confident in their own achievements are more likely to be seen as leaders. It is not yet clear to what extent these three characteristics also play a role in women's spontaneous leadership. It also appears that women who position themselves as leaders receive lower ratings from their followers than male leaders who perform exactly the same.

The social identity theory ("social identity theory")

Social identity theory argues that leadership emergence is about the extent to which one fits into the group as a whole. Eventually, as groups develop, a prototype emerges for the group. Individuals in the group automatically become leaders if they resemble the developing prototype of the group. Behaving like a prototype makes the leader more attractive to others, allowing him or her to influence the group more.

leadership and power

The concept of power is related to the concept of leadership because power comes with influence. Power is therefore seen as the ability to influence others. French and Raven distinguish five types of power, which are described below.

1. „Speaker performance':This type of power is based on followers identifying with and liking the leader. A teacher who is popular with the students has that kind of power.

2. „Expert power':This form of power is based on ideas about the leader's competence. A guide who knows a lot about a country has that power.

3. „"Legitimate power":This kind of power comes with status or authority. For example, consider a juror.

4. „Reward power':This kind of power is about being able to give rewards. An example of this is a director who has the power to reward employees with money.

5. „coercive violence':This kind of power is about the ability to punish others. An example is a coach who can make kids sit on the bench so they can't play football.

Personal (personal power) and positional power (positional power)

There are two kinds of power in an organization: (1) personal power and (2) positional power.

• Personal Power (Personal Power)occurs when a leader is well educated and people also believe he or she has a lot of knowledge. When leaders behave in ways that matter to their followers, leaders become powerful. For example, some leaders have power because their followers see them as role models. Reference power and expert power are forms of personal power.

• Positionele macht ("positional do")is the power a person has because of his official position in a company. For example, a director has more status and power than an operational manager. Legitimate power, reward power and coercive power are forms of positional power.

dominance

Leaders are often seen as having power over others and being able to dominate their followers. Burns disagrees. He sees power more from a relational perspective. He argues that power is not a given that leaders use to get others to do what they want, but that power is normal in relationships. According to this view, power must be used by leaders and followers to achieve common goals.

leadership and coercion

Coercion is a specific form of power (coercion) that leaders can use. This kind of power is often associated with threats and punishments. It is important to distinguish between leadership and power. Leadership is a way of achieving common goals. People who use power do so to achieve their own goals.

leadership and management

Leadership and management are similar, but also very different. In both management and leadership it is important to influence others and to work together. Furthermore, leadership and management go hand in hand with effective achievement of goals. However, the concepts are also different. Aristotle, for example, was already thinking about management, while management did not emerge until after the industrial revolution. Management is seen as a way to reduce chaos in organizations so that they can work more effectively and efficiently. Kotter argues that leadership creates order and stability, while leadership involves movement and change. Basically, management is about stability, while management is about adaptation and change. Kotter explained that both leadership and management are necessary for the development of a business. Bennis and Nanus also argue that leadership and management are different things. Somethingto administermeans to complete activities and perform routines whileledeIt's about influencing others and thinking about change. Rost claims that in leadership leaders and followers influence each other, while in leadership only the followers are influenced. He argues that managers coordinate activities, while managers want to initiate change. Zaleznik argues that managers work with people to solve problems, but they are not very emotionally involved in the process. According to Zaleznik, managers limit the number of choices. According to this researcher, leaders are emotionally active and involved. They try to shape ideas and create more possibilities so that others can get a new idea of ​​what can be achieved.

layout of the book

The book covers several theories of management. Each chapter begins with a description of a management approach. Subsequently, the advantages and disadvantages of the method are discussed.

Part B: Leadership skills

Innate personality traits

The trait approach was the first systematic approach to research management. At the beginning of the 20th^eOver the past century, personality traits have been studied to determine the qualities associated with great leaders. The theories that emerged from this information were called "great man theories" because they dealt with the inner characteristics of social, political and military leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Napoleon Bonaparte. It was believed that great leaders were born with certain traits, and research has focused on identifying these traits. Mid 20s^eIn the 19th century, people began to doubt the universality of leadership qualities. For example, Stogdill argued that personality traits cannot distinguish between leaders and non-leaders in different situations. For example, a person with certain qualities may be considered a leader in one situation and not in another. Because of this, leadership was no longer seen as a personality trait, but described as a relationship between people in a social situation. Research into personal factors continued, but people began to believe that the situations in which people function should also be considered.

Stogdill

Lord, De Vader, and Alliger found that personality traits are strongly related to a person's perception of leadership. The "traits approach" has gotten a lot of attention because there is a lot more research on charismatic leadership these days. Jung and Sosik claim that charismatic leaders, among other things, score high on impression formation, self-actualization and motivation to achieve social power. In science, the "trait approach" is therefore very important today. Basically, this approach started by identifying the characteristics of great leaders and then shifted the focus to situations. Great emphasis is now being placed again on the role of personality traits in effective management. Stogdill claims that leaders differ from non-leaders in eight traits: intelligence, alertness, insight, responsibility, initiative, persistence, trust, and sociability.

Stogdill argued that one does not become a leader on the basis of these characteristics alone, but that these characteristics must be relevant to the situation one functions in. According to Stogdill, leadership is not a passive state, but is influenced by the relationship between a leader and his followers . He later conducted another study that resulted in ten personality traits. These personality traits are intended to distinguish between leaders and non-leaders. Below is an overview of these features.

1. The urge for responsibility and task fulfillment.

2. Strength and perseverance in achieving goals.

3. Risk taking and originality in solving problems.

4. The urge to take initiative in social situations.

5. Confidence and sense of personal identity.

6. Able to accept the consequences of decisions and actions.

7. Coping with interpersonal stress.

8. Can accept frustration and delay.

9. The ability to influence the behavior of other people.

10. The ability to structure social interaction.

Man, meer, Kirkpatrick a Locke

Mann has also researched the influence of personality traits on leadership. He considered personality factors more important than Stogdill, who also emphasized the influence of situational factors. Mann explained that six personality traits can distinguish leaders from non-leaders: intelligence, masculinity, adaptability, dominance, extroversion, and conservatism. Lord used a meta-analysis to find that intelligence, masculinity, and dominance are related to how people view leaders. Both Mann and Lord were researching leadership at a time when men dominated America. Kirkpatrick and Locke state that leaders and non-leaders differ on six personality traits: drive, motivation, integrity, self-confidence, cognitive ability, and task awareness. These scientists argue that these traits may be innate and/or learned.

socially intelligent

In the 1990s, scientists began researching "social intelligence." It is about the skills that enable people to understand and act on their own feelings, behavior and thoughts. Zaccaro claims that social intelligence is about social awareness, self-control and the ability to give the best response in a given situation. According to Zaccaro, traits such as extroversion, emotional stability, openness and problem-solving skills also play a role in leadership. In short, we can say that many scientists have a different view of the personality traits associated with leadership. Nevertheless, five personality traits keep appearing in the research literature:

1. Intelligent.Intellectual ability and leadership are positively related. Research shows that leaders have a higher IQ than non-leaders. Well-developed verbal skills, perceptiveness and logical thinking go hand in hand with good leadership. Research also shows that it is less beneficial if a leader has a much higher IQ than his followers. This can lead to the leader's ideas becoming too complicated for followers to understand.

2. Trust (trust).Confidence is about the ability to have confidence in one's skills and abilities. Trust can give a leader the assurance that he can positively influence his followers.

3. Facility ("Amenity").Determination is about the drive to get a job done. Taking initiative, being dominant, and showing persistence all play a role in decisiveness.

4. Integrity.Being honest means being honest and trustworthy. People who take responsibility for their own actions and have strong principles are considered to have integrity. When leaders have integrity, it makes their followers trust them. You can count on a leader with integrity, because such a leader is loyal and does not mislead. In short: Integrity makes a leader trustworthy.

5. hygge.This trait represents a leader's ability to build comfortable social relationships. Leaders with this trait are friendly, tactful, diplomatic, outgoing and well mannered.

The Five-Factor Personality Model (Five-Factor Personality Model) and management

This is often talked about in psychology'Big Five'as the five main factors on which personality is based. These factors are:

1. „"neurotic":Tendency to be depressed, anxious, insecure, vulnerable and aggressive.

2. „Extraversion':tend to be outgoing, confident and have positive energy.

3. „Openness':tend to be knowledgeable, creative, perceptive and curious.

4. „Compatibility':tendency to be accepting, adaptable, trustworthy and caring.

5. „conscientiousness':tend to be complete, organized and reliable.

Research shows that there is a close relationship between the Big Five and leadership. Extroversion appears to be most related to leadership. This is therefore the most important quality of leaders. The second is conscientiousness, the third is openness, and the fourth is a low score for neuroticism. Agreeableness and leadership are not closely related.

Emotional intelligence

In the 1990s, the role of emotional intelligence in leadership was increasingly explored. Emotional intelligence deals with both feelings and cognitions and the relationship between the two concepts.intelligentit's about the ability to do itInformationLearn and apply this information in everyday lifeemotional intelligenceit's about the ability to do itemotionsunderstand and apply this knowledge to important life tasks. A precise definition ofemotional intelligenceis the ability to perceive and express emotions and use emotions to think better, understand emotions and the ability to manage emotions effectively in relation to others. Emotional intelligence can be measured with the MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test). This test measures mental abilities such as perceiving, understanding and controlling emotions. Goleman argues that emotional intelligence consists of personal and social skills. personal wealth("personal competence")stands for self-awareness, self-confidence, self-regulation, conscientiousness and motivation. social skills('social skills')stands for empathy and social skills such as communication and conflict resolution. Researchers disagree on how important emotional intelligence is to success in life. For example, Goleman believes that emotional intelligence is very important for success at school, at home, and at work. Mayer, Salovey and Caruso see more emotional intelligence as a way to deal with challenges. We can conclude that emotional intelligence appears to be an important leadership trait. If you can perceive other people's feelings well, you will become a good leader faster.

How does the property approach work?

The trait approach differs significantly from the approaches in the following chapters because it focuses only on the leader and not on a leader's followers. However, this approach involves unspecific hypotheses about what type of leader is needed in a given situation or how a leader should behave in a given situation. This approach really only looks at the qualities that make someone a good leader. This approach further states that organizations function better when people in leadership positions meet the leadership requirements. For this reason, applicants in companies are often checked to see if they really have the leadership qualities that are important to a company. The trait approach is also used, for example, to give managers more insight into their own development. This allows leaders to get a sense of their strengths and weaknesses and how others see them. You can also look at the characteristics of a manager to see if he is ready for a higher position in the organization.

Strengths of the property approach

The trait approach has a number of strengths. These points are listed below.

1. We ourselves often have the idea that leaders are different from non-leaders and that leaders can make important things happen. The trait approach actually fits well with our self-image of leaders, as it also assumes that leaders differ from non-leaders and that this can be traced back to certain personality traits.

2. Another strength is that much research has been done based on this approach. No other approach has led to so many scientific studies. This fact lends credibility to this approach.

3. In addition, it is a plus that this approach emphasizes the manager's role in the management process. This can also be seen as a disadvantage, as it makes more sense to also be aware of situations and followers in the management process. However, this is also a plus, as the role of managers in management has been specifically studied, and we therefore have a great deal of knowledge.

4. After all, this approach tells us what qualities we need to be good leaders.

Disadvantages of the property approach

The property approach also has some disadvantages, which are discussed below.

1. The biggest criticism is that there is still no authoritative list of personality traits for leaders. Despite the fact that many studies have been carried out, it is still not clear which personality traits characterize leaders.

2. Another disadvantage of this approach is that it does not take into account the influence of situational factors on leadership. For example, Stogdill believes that one cannot talk about a set of personality traits without also taking situational factors into account. People with certain personality traits may be leaders in one situation but not in another. Some personality traits also contribute to the emergence of leadership, but not to the maintenance of leadership. In short, situations affect management, and this approach takes too little account of that.

3. It is also true that the determination of leadership qualities per examination is done in a subjective way. This subjectivity also shows up in self-help books. The author of one book may say that ambition and creativity are very important to leadership, while the author of the other book claims that empathy and calmness are very important. These differences are because the authors are subjective. Often, the importance of certain personality traits for leadership is not based on reliably conducted studies.

4. This approach also does not examine the relationship between leadership characteristics and leadership outcomes. For example, the influence of leadership characteristics on group members and work outcomes has not been studied. For example, the relationship between leadership qualities and workplace productivity has not been studied.

5. A final criticism is that this approach is not suitable for leadership training and development. This is because traits are predominantly fixed psychological constructs that cannot be properly trained. You just have to be lucky enough to be born with leadership skills.

Application and measuring equipment

Despite some shortcomings, this approach still provides valuable management information. Although there is no fixed list of leadership qualities, this approach gives us an idea of ​​which qualities are likely to be important for leadership. This way, people can still get an idea of ​​whether they have important leadership qualities. Companies use different questionnaires to measure individual characteristics. The most widely used tests are the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The results of these tests reflect a person's leadership skills. Another example is the LTQ (Leadership Trait Questionnaire), which gives a picture of a person's strong and weak personality traits that can be important for leadership.

Part C: Leadership skills

opportunities

As with the "Pull Approach", the leader is central to the description of the management process in the "Skill Approach". But the skills approach emphasizes a leader's abilities rather than their personality traits. This approach therefore states that knowledge and certain skills are necessary for effective management. Researchers have been studying leadership skills, both directly and indirectly, for several years now. However, research into leadership skills only began with an article by Katz entitled "Skills of an Effective Administrator". Katz wrote this article at a time when researchers were trying to compile a list of personality traits that would characterize leaders. Katz got around this problem by viewing leadership in terms ofopportunities. Today, there is renewed interest in the "skills approach". In the early 1990s, studies were published showing that leadership effectiveness was related to a leader's ability to solve complex organizational problems. These studies have led to a management model based on skills. This chapter first discusses Katz's ideas about three managerial skills: (1) technical, (2) human and (3) conceptual skills. Next, Mumford's work is discussed. This work has led to a new management model based on competences.

The three skills approach

Katz argued that effective management is based on three personal skills: (1) technical, (2) people, and (3) conceptual skills. Katz argued that these skills are distinct from the personality traits or qualities of leaders.opportunitiesare the things leaders can do, according to Katzwhen, mensDragIt's about some leadersIs.Leadership skills represent the ability to use one's knowledge and skills to achieve a set of goals. Below we take a closer look at the three possibilities that Katz mentions.

1. INTechnical skillsays something about the knowledge someone has in a certain area. This is where analytical skills and the ability to use the right tools and techniques are important. For example, in a computer business, a technical skill is about understanding the language of software and how to program it. Technical skills are especially important for lower and middle management and less important for senior management. For example, drivers do not need to know much about technical skills to do their job well.

2. INhuman skillit's about the ability to handle itPeopleoccupation. This skill differs from a technical skill because a technical skill is about working withStuff.Social skills are about leaders getting along with their followers, as well as those above them. Through social skills, a leader can ensure that group members work well together to achieve common goals. According to Katz, these skills are about a leader who understands his own perspective as well as that of others. People-savvy leaders adapt their ideas to the ideas of others. These leaders also ensure that followers have confidence, security and motivation. A leader with social skills recognizes the needs of others. The use of soft skills is important at all levels of management, but these skills are especially important for middle and top management.

3. Conceptual skillsit's about the ability to handle itideasand concepts work. A manager with conceptual skills speaks easily about the ideas on which a business is based. Such a manager can also formulate the company's objectives well. A manager with conceptual skills is good at working with abstract terms and hypothetical constructs. These skills are necessary to create a strategic plan for an organization. Conceptual skills are critical for the highest levels of management and become less relevant as lower levels of management are considered.

The competence model ("the competence model")

In the early 1990s, a group of scientists was tasked with developing a management theory based on problem-solving skills in organizations. Several studies have been conducted to identify the key underlying aspects of effective performance. For example, the researchers were interested in why some managers are good problem solvers and others are not. Based on several research findings, Mumford and his colleagues designed a leadership competency model. The model is also referred to as acapacitys-model because the model specifically shows the relationship between a manager's knowledge and skills and a manager's performance. Leadership skills can be developed over time through training and experience. Unlike the traits approach, the skills approach does not say that someone must be born with certain characteristics to be a good leader. The skills approach also differs from the style approach, transformative leadership, and leader-member exchange theory because it emphasizes thatSkills (knowledge and skills) that lead to effective managementinstead of thiswhat leaders do.Mumford's skills-based model consists of five parts: (1) Competencies, (2) Individual Characteristics, (3) Leadership Achievements, (4) Career ExperienceI(5) Environmental impacts.All these components are discussed below. The competencies form the core of the competency model.

skills

Under Skills(1) problem-solving skills, (2) social judgment, and (3) knowledge.All three factors are discussed below.

1. problem solving skills ("problem solving skills")

According to Mumford and colleagues, problem solving skills refer to a manager's creative ability to solve new, unusual, and obscure problems. These skills include a manager who identifies and names problems, gathers information, sees problems from a new perspective, and develops plans to solve problems. It is important that a manager is aware of his own abilities. When it comes to problem solving skills, it is especially important for a manager to be able to suggest possible solutions to problems. It is important that managers can set a deadline for finding and implementing a solution.

2. Social dom ("Social dom")

This includes the ability to understand people and social systems. These skills enable managers to interact with othersto cooperateto solve problems or implement changes in an organization. Katz also talked about the importance of social skills, but like Mumford, he did not distinguish between three types of social judgment. Mumford talks about (1) taking a perspective('taking perspectives'),(2) social perspective("social perspective")and (3) social performance("Social Performance").

• When taking a perspectiveIt's about a manager's perspectiveandrehas a good understanding of a problem or situation. The ability to understand another's perspective is related to thissocially intelligentaccording to Mumford and his colleagues.

• bisocial perspectiveIt is about understanding how others function in an organization. As a leader, you think about what others consider important and what motivates others. A leader with a social perspective can gauge how his followers will react to a proposed organizational change. A concept related to the social perspective is behavioral flexibility("Behavioral Flexibility").This includes the ability to change and adapt one's behavior when a leader understands the perspectives of others in an organization.

• bisocial achievementsIncludes a variety of leadership skills. An example of this is that a manager is good at communicating his own vision to others and can communicate when there is disagreement about whether to implement certain changes in an organization. Conflict resolution is therefore an important form of social performance.

Know

Knowledge is very important to apply problem solving skills in organizations. belowKnow"Information" means the collection of information, but also the mental structures for organizing information. It is also called a mental structureSchemecalled. Knowledge arises when complex schemas are used to learn and organize data. Information is stored in categories, which makes the information more meaningful. Knowledge comes from factsIof the structures we store knowledge in. People with a lot of knowledge have more complex mental structures than people with little knowledge. This is how these people will beExperts |called. A manager with extensive knowledge of e.g. products, tasks, people and organizations understands how this information is connected. So such a manager has many mental structures to store and organize facts. Knowledge has a positive influence on the way managers solve their problems. Knowledge and expertise enable people to develop strategies to solve problems.

Individual characteristics

Individual characteristics are also important for leadership. A distinction is made between four factors:(1) general cognitive ability ("general cognitive ability"), (2) "crystallized cognitive ability" ("crystallized cognitive ability"), (3) motivationI(4) Personality.

1. General cognitive skills

This is about a person's intelligence. This includes perceptual processing, information processing, general thinking skills, creative thinking and memory skills. General cognitive skills are sometimes referred to as fluid intelligence. It is a form of intelligence that increases in adulthood and then declines. Intelligence has a positive influence on the acquisition of problem-solving skills and knowledge.

2. Crystallized cognitive ability

This is the information learned over the years. So it's really about all the knowledge we have through experience. We are constantly teaching ourselves new skills and abilities that can help us become better leaders because, for example, we have acquired more problem-solving and social judgment skills over time. Crystallized cognitive skills include learning complex information, new skills and information, and the ability to communicate with others in writing and orally. Unlike general cognitive ability, this type of cognitive ability involves acquired information.

3. Motivation

According to the competency model, three aspects of motivation are important in management: (1) Managers must solve problems in an organizationwilsolve, (2) they shalldominancebe able to express oneself to influence others, and (3) commit to doing so'Social good'An organization. The third aspect means that managers must be willing to take responsibility for improving the human value in an organization.

4. personality

Personality affects the development of leadership skills. For example, if a manager is very open and curious, this can affect a manager's motivation to solve problems. Traits such as confidence and flexibility can also influence a leader's performance.

Unfortunately, suits cost money

Leadership outcomes are influenced by a leader's competencies (problem-solving skills, social judgment, and knowledge). Mastering these competencies enables managers to (1) solve problems better and generally (2) perform better.

1. Effective problem solving

As previously mentioned, the competency model is an aptitude model that tries to explain why some managers are good problem solvers and others are not. Problem solving plays a central role in the competence approach. Good problem solving is determined by the originality and quality of the solutions provided.

2. Performance

Performance in the competence model is about how well a manager does his job. Successful managers get good reviews, get more raises, and are more likely to be described as competent by other managers.

work experience

Professional experience also affects the characteristics and competences of managers. The competency model states that experiences managers gain during their careers influence their knowledge and problem-solving skills. Mumford and his colleagues argue that work experience has a positive influence on the individual characteristics of managers. They argue that managers acquire skills over time through the experiences they gain. Managers develop their conceptual skills more as they are increasingly confronted with complex and long-term problems. Leaders at the highest level of an organization develop new competencies as they interact with others to solve new problems.

environmental impacts

Environmental influences are influences that lie outside of a manager's skills, attributes and experience. An example of an environmental impact is the performance of a trailer. When followers are highly skilled, they can have a significant impact on problem solving and group performance. When a task is very complex and there is poor communication in the group, it affects a leader's performance.

How does competence access work?

The competence approach is mainly descriptive('descriptive')from nature. Thus, this approach does not tell us how to succeed as a leader, but rather provides a frame of reference for understanding effective leadership. The three skills Katz talks about (Three Skills Approach) show that the importance of certain leadership skills varies depending on the leaders' position in an organization's hierarchy. Technical and soft skills are most important at the lower levels of an organization, while technical, human and conceptual skills are important at the middle levels of an organization. At the highest level of an organization, conceptual and soft skills are important. With their competency model, Mumford and his colleagues provided a complex picture of how skills relate to effective leadership. They argue that leadership skills in problem solving, social judgment, and knowledge are important for leadership. The competence approach also provides information('Map')how to achieve effective leadership in an organization. To function well, managers must have problem-solving skills, social judgment and knowledge. These skills can be developed through training and experience. According to the skills approach, personal characteristics are also important for management, but theopportunitiesthe most important thing in a leader.

Strengths of the skills approach

The strength of the competence approach is described below.

1. This approach focuses on developing good skills. This is the first approach to emphasize the importance of skills at this scale.

2. Moreover, this approach is very credible. If we understand leadership in terms of competences, this means that anyone can become a good leader. Because everyone can be trained to master certain skills.

3. This approach emphasizes multiple components of management, from knowledge to work experience to environmental influences. Each of these components can also be divided into subcomponents. By naming all these components, this approach provides a complete picture of management.

4. The competency approach offers a frame of reference that fits well into the content of many educational programs that focus on management. For example, many training programs focus on teaching people in leadership positions skills such as conflict resolution and problem solving.

Disadvantages of the skills approach

In addition to the above advantages, the 'skills approach' also has a number of disadvantages. These negatives are discussed below.

1. This approach is about more than management. The approach also discusses, for example, personality, conflict resolution and motivation. Because there are so many factors involved, this approach is too general and not precise enough to explain leadership.

2. Furthermore, this approach does not really have much predictive value. For example, it is not clear how differences in social judgment and problem-solving skills affect a leader's performance. This approach is also not clearHowCompetence leads to good management.

3. Another criticism is that this approach is self-containedNEECharacteristics approach, where personal characteristics are an important part of this approach.

4. The final criticism is that this approach is not applicable to all areas of work where leadership is important. The competence model has been developed on the basis of a large selection of military personnel. However, the question is how generalizable research results are based solely on this group.

Application and measuring equipment

Unfortunately, the skills approach is still little used as a method for training leadership skills. Nevertheless, this approach provides important information about leadership that managers can use for their further development. The approach shows which qualities are important and also ensures that people can decide for themselves how strong or weak their technical, human and conceptual skills are. This approach thus promotes people's self-understanding. Many questionnaires have been developed to measure leadership skills. Almost all questionnaires are designed for training and development of leadership skills. They give people an idea of ​​their own abilities. Mumford and his colleagues chose to measure leadership skills using open-ended questions and simple assessment methods.

Part D: Leadership styles

Task and relational behavior

The style approach focuses on a leader's behavior. This is in contrast to the "traits" approach, which emphasizes leadership characteristics, and the "skills" approach, which focuses primarily on a leader's abilities. The style approach focuses only on what leaders do and how they behave. According to this approach, leadership consists of two behaviors: (1)Task Behavior (Task Behavior)i 2)relationship behavior ("relationship behavior").Task behavior ensures that goals can be achieved by group members. Relational behaviors make followers feel good about themselves, others, and the situation they are in. The style approach attempts to explain how leaders combine task and relational behaviors to achieve goals.

History

The first studies of the style approach were conducted at Ohio State University in the 1940s and were based on Stogdill's insight that leadership does not come from leadership qualities alone. At the same time, studies were conducted at the University of Michigan to investigate how leadership works in small groups. In the 1960s, Blake and Mouton investigated how managers use task and relational behavior in organizations. Studies from Ohio State University, University of Michigan, and Blake and Mouton are discussed below.

Die Ohio-Studien ("Ohio State Studies")

A group of researchers from Ohio State University believed that it is not wise to focus only on leadership qualities, but that it is important to study how individuals developTo behavein leading a group or organization. Followers began filling out questionnaires about their leader and reporting how often their leader engaged in certain behaviors. This questionnaire consisted of 150 questions and was called the "Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire" (LBDQ). This questionnaire was presented to hundreds of people from different fields of work. Based on the research, a number of behaviors emerged which are inherent in managers. Later Stogdill shortened LBDQ and called it LBDQ-XII. Follower responses to leadership focused primarily on two types of leadership behaviors: (1)"initiating structure":Work behaviors such as structuring, organizing and distributing responsibilities and (2)'Mindfulness':Relational behaviour, where respect, trust and warmth between leaders and followers are particularly important. These two behaviors are central to the stylistic approach. The Ohio studies consider these behaviors as separate constructs. They would therefore not lie on a continuum, but exist independently of each other. Therefore, it is possible for a manager to perform many tasks but show little relational behavior. In some situations, task behavior appears to be more important, while in other situations, relationship behavior appears to be more important. Research shows that the best kind of leadership is associated with high levels of task and relational behavior. The path-goal theory tries to convey an idea of ​​how managers should integrate both behaviors. This theory is discussed in detail in Chapter 7.

Michigan Studies ("University of Michigan Studies")

The Michigan studies focused on the impact of leadership behaviors on performance in small groups. Two types of leadership emerged from this research: (1)'Employee Orientation': Emphasizing the followers' personal needs and individuality and respect for the relationship with the followers i 2)'Production Reconciliation':emphasize the technical and productive aspects of the job; Followers in this case are seen as a means to accomplish a task. "Production Orientation" corresponds to "Initiation Structure" from the Ohio Studies and "Employee Orientation" corresponds to "Consideration". In contrast to the Ohio studies, the Michigan studies considered 'employee orientation' and 'production orientation' as two constructs that lie on a continuum and thus do not exist separately. A manager can therefore score high on "employee orientation", but score lower on "production orientation" and vice versa. Later, this idea was replaced by the idea that both constructs can exist independently. On the basis of the studies from Michigan and Ohio, further research has been conducted into how task and relational behavior can best be combined, so that followers feel understood, but also perform optimally. However, different studies have produced different results, although some studies suggest that high levels of task and relational behaviors are the best form of leadership.

Blake en Mouton's Management Network

The Blake and Mouton framework is well known and widely used for training and developing people in companies. In this scheme, a distinction is made between (1)"watch out for the people"(indication of relationship behavior) and (2)"Manufacturing Concerns"(Reference to Work Conduct). This diagram is on page 73. "Caring for people" includes a leader who cultivates trust in his followers, recognizes followers' personal worth, and maintains good social relationships with them. Manufacturing concerns are about achieving business goals. This applies, for example, to workloads and the development of new products. In the Blake and Mouton grid, the vertical axis shows "concern with people" (relationship behavior) and the horizontal axis shows "concern with results" (task behavior). A score of 9 can be achieved on each of the axes. For example, someone might get a 9 for task behavior but not for relationship behavior. This indicates that this person finds task behavior very important("maximum care").In fact, a value of 1 on the vertical axis indicates that a leader exhibits little behavior related to relationships, and a value of 1 on the horizontal axis indicates that a leader exhibits little behavior on tasks.("Minimum Concern").Based on all possible combinations of both behaviors, five leadership styles emerge in Blake and Mouton's team:

1. „"Compliance with Authorities" (9.1):In this case, a manager sees the completion of tasks as very important, but interpersonal relationships as unimportant. Such a leader only communicates with his followers to give instructions about tasks. In fact, followers are only seen by this leader as a means to an end.

2. „Country-Club-Management“ (1,9):In this case, interpersonal relationships are very important to a manager, but she is not task oriented. Such a leader wants to create a pleasant atmosphere and is helpful.

3. „Impoverished leadership" (1.1):In this case, a manager considers both tasks and relationships unimportant. Such a leader is disinterested and indifferent.

4. „"Midway Management" (5.5):In this case, managers place an average value on both interpersonal relationships and task completion. There is a balance, so to speak, but the manager loses part of the task orientation and part of the relationship orientation. Conflicts are avoided by such a leader.

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5. „Team management" (9.9):In this case, a manager has a strong focus on both personal relationships and tasks. Followers are expected to be engaged and involved at work, but also fun at work and open-minded.

Paternalism, maternalism i opportunism

In addition to the five leadership styles listed above, Blake and colleagues also state that there are two other styles associated with several parts of the list.

1. Paternalism/maternalism:This is a manager who uses both authority conformity (1.9) and country club leadership (9.1), but does not integrate these styles. In this case, we are also talking about a benevolent dictator who behaves kindly and pleasantly, but only to achieve his goals. The paternalistic/maternalistic style actually sees people separated from tasks.

2. Opportunism:This is a leader who uses a combination of the five leadership styles to his own advantage.

Blake and Mouton argue that people often have one dominant leadership style, but also another leadership style like Plan B. This alternative leadership style is used when a leader is under pressure.

How does the style approach work?

The style approach is not a detailed theory that provides a picture of what effective leadership is. In fact, this approach serves more as a frame of reference for the analysis of management in terms of relationship and task orientation. The style approach is thus primarily descriptive and does not explain how managers should behave. In some situations it is better to be task-oriented, while in other situations it is better to be relationship-oriented. Some followers also need a lot of guidance, while other followers mainly need support. The style approach allows a leader to think about how he leads others.

Strengths in the style approach

Below is a summary of the benefits of the style approach.

1. First, this approach has prevented people from viewing leadership solely in terms of personality traits. This approach emphasized the behavior of managers in specific situations.

2. This approach has also been explored in Ohio Studies and Michigan Studies, among others. There seems to be a lot of evidence for the importance of this approach.

3. This approach provides a clear picture of leadership behavior by distinguishing between task and relationship orientation. An effective leader finds a balance between the two behaviors.

4. It is also true that this approach can be used as a kind of frame of reference for understanding management behavior. Managers can also learn more about their own behaviors by classifying their behaviors into task and relationship behaviors.

Disadvantages of the style approach

In addition to the above strengths, the style approach has a number of minor strengths.

1. How leadership styles relate to performance has not been studied to date. Researchers do not yet know how, for example, task and relationship behavior are connected to job satisfaction. Yukl argues that all we know so far is that caring leaders often have satisfied followers.

2. This approach has also not yet clarified which universal leadership style is most effective in each situation. Just as with the 'trait approach' it is not yet clear which personality traits are characteristic of leaders, it is not yet clear with the 'style approach' which leadership style is most effective.

3. This approach seems to imply that the best you can do as a manager is to score high (9.9) on both task behavior and relationship behavior. However, research shows that this is not the case in all cases.

Application and measuring equipment

The style approach is easy to use in situations where leadership is important. This approach allows managers to determine how they appear to employees and how to change their behavior. Based on this approach, people are trained in companies so that they can develop further. An example of such a training and development program is a Blake and Mouton Leadership Grid seminar. At such a seminar, leadership is practiced in small groups. You can also criticize each other. Determining a person's leadership style is often based on the LBDQ and the Leadership Grid (Blake and Mouton's grid). Both the shift plan and the LBDQ provide an image of the extent to which a manager is task- and/or relationship-oriented.

Part E: Leadership Situations

The situation

One of the most used approaches in management research is the situational approach. This approach was developed by Hersey and Blanchard. This approach has changed repeatedly over time. As the term suggests, situational leadership is about leadership in different situations. The assumption of this approach is therefore that different situations require different types of leadership. According to this approach, an effective leader adapts his leadership to different situations. The situational approach states that leadership includes both a directing (directive) and a facilitating (supportive) dimension. According to this approach, each dimension must be applied correctly in a situation. To determine how a leader should act in a situation, they must first assess the skills and commitment of their followers. Employees' skills and motivation are not the same in all situations, so it is important for a manager to respond by varying the level of guidance and support. The essence of this approach is that leaders must adapt their leadership style to the skills and commitment of their followers. Effective leaders recognize what their followers need and adapt their leadership style accordingly.

The situational leadership model (Situational leadership II model)

Blanchard has developed a model ("Situational Leadership II model") to illustrate the influence of situations on leadership. The model is based on the distinction between two concepts: (1)management style (management style)i 2)Development Status of Followers ("Follower Development Status").This model can be seen on page 90. Leadership consists of the behavior pattern of the person who tries to influence others. This pattern of behavior consists of (1) accompanying task behavior("directive task behavior")and (2) supportive relationship behaviors("supportive relationship behaviors").

1. Accompanying task behaviors include leadership, setting goals and roles, and explaining how to achieve those goals. Monitoring task behavior is often one-way traffic: you get guidance from managers and not the other way around. The manager explains what needs to be done, how it needs to be done and who is responsible for what.

2. Supportive relational behaviors make followers feel good about themselves, with colleagues, and with the situation they work in. Supportive relational behaviors are mutual intercourse. Information is exchanged back and forth. Problems are also solved and compliments are given.

Leadership styles according to the situational leadership model

Based on the situational management model, four management models can be distinguished.

1. „High direction, low supportive style" (S1;Also"Manager"mentioned): In this case, a leader uses communication to achieve goals and even less to express supportive behavior.

2. „"High Direktiv, High Support Style" (S2;Also'Coaching'mentioned): In this case, a leader communicates to achieve goals, but also to meet the socio-economic needs of followers. The leader stimulates and encourages his followers. Coaching is actually an extension of S1, as the manager has the final sayHowIwasto reach goals.

3. „very supportive"low directive style"(S3;Also"supportive"In this case, a leader not only focuses on goals, but uses supportive behaviors that place more emphasis on the followers' abilities to help achieve goals. The leader listens, gives praise and feedback and asks for input. The leader puts his followers in control of the day-to-day decisions, but remains there to solve problems. Such a leader quickly gains social support.

4. „Low support"low directive style"(S4;Also"delegate"called):In this case, a manager gives little input in relation to tasks, but also in the form of social support. He or she is also not so concerned with planning, mastering details and clarifying goals. After the group has agreed on what needs to be done, the followers take their own responsibility for achieving the goals in the way they want. Thus, a delegating leader delegates control to his followers and does not provide unnecessary social support.

Development stages

The second concept that comes back in the situational leadership model is the developmental level of followers. Sophistication refers to the extent to which followers have the skills and dedication necessary to complete a task or perform an activity. So the decisive factor is whether someone has the necessary skills to carry out a task and whether someone has a positive attitude towards the task. If this is the case, a follower scores with a high level of development. In the situational management model, a distinction is made between four development stages, which consist of a different combination of competence and commitment.

1. D1: These followers have little knowledge but a lot of involvement. They do not immediately know how to tackle a new task, but still feel challenged.

2. D2: These followers have an intermediate skill level but low engagement scores. They have learned to get chores done, but are not particularly motivated to get chores done.

3. D3: These followers have medium to high skill but lack engagement. They have learned the skills required for the tasks but are unsure if they can complete the tasks on their own.

4. D4: These followers score on ability, but also on effort. You have the competence to handle tasks and are also highly motivated within this area.

How does the situational approach work?

The situational approach is based on the idea that followers develop on a continuum. Both competence and commitment are important for this development. Leaders can lead successfully if they can correctly assess the level of development of their followers and adjust their leadership style accordingly. A manager must first collect a lot of information about the situation, for example by determining which tasks need to be performed, how complex the tasks are, and whether the employees have sufficient skills to perform the tasks. For example, people who have just been employed in a new company and are motivated, but unfortunately do not yet have the necessary skills to perform the position, have a development level of D1. Once a leader has determined the level of development of his followers, they must begin to adapt their leadership style. There is a one-to-one relationship between followers' development level (D1, D2, D3 and D4) and a leader's leadership style (S1, S2, S3, S4). For example, if the followers are only in the first stage of development, the leaders are also very supportive, but less supportive (S1). There is therefore an appropriate management style for each development phase. Because the developmental level of followers can change over time, leaders must be flexible in their leadership style. Therefore, managers cannot provide the same leadership in all contexts; It is always important to adapt to changing circumstances.

Strengths of the situational approach

The situational approach has a number of strengths which are highlighted below.

1. First, this approach has been used for years for training in organizations. It is a credible approach to turning people into effective leaders.

2. Another advantage is the applicability of this approach. Situational leadership is easy to understand and apply in a variety of contexts. This is because situational leadership is an abstract concept, and it is logical that leaders allow their leadership to be influenced by the situation in which they find themselves.

3. Another advantage is that this approach is not descriptive but prescriptive. That is, this approach tells us how we should and should not behave in certain situations. If followers have low skills, the situational approach dictates that we as leaders assume a predominantly leadership role. When employees are highly skilled but less committed, a supportive management style is better.

4. The fourth advantage is that this approach says that management flexibility is important. This approach emphasizes that a leader must adapt his leadership style to the situation and the level of development of the followers.

5. The final benefit is that situational leadership tells us to treat each employee differently so that they can learn more skills and also feel more confident about their job performance.

Disadvantages of the situational approach

The situational approach also has a number of shortcomings. These negatives are listed below.

1. The first criticism is that few studies have been conducted to test the assumptions of this approach. For this reason, it can be said that this approach is not yet sufficiently supported in the scientific literature. So we don't know if this approach is really good and if it is better or less good than other approaches.

2. Another criticism is the unclear conceptualization of the follower's developmental stages in the situational leadership model. It is not entirely clear how ability and dedication combine to form four distinct stages of development. Further research is needed to draw conclusions about the relationship between competence and engagement at the developmental level. Also, "ability" as a concept in itself is not clearly defined by the creators of the situational leadership model.

3. In addition, the model assumes that followers who progress in their developmental level are less involved in their tasks. However, this assumption may not be correct at all. Studies have not shown that people become less involved as they get older.

4. The model also predicts that certain developmental stages are associated with certain leadership styles. However, research has not shown that this connection exists. For example, it has been shown that a structured management style works well for new employees, while for those with experience in the position it does not seem to matter which management style is used.

5. Another criticism is that this approach does not take into account the influence of demographic variables (such as age and education level) on the leadership styles leaders should use in response to their followers' level of development. Research shows that education level and work experience are related to senior management and not supportive management at all. People with higher education and more work experience seem to have less need for structure. It also appears that older people have a greater need for structure than young people. It also shows that women in particular have a need for the supportive management style, while men predominantly prefer the leading management style. So research shows that demographic variables influence people's leadership preferences.

6. Furthermore, it is not clear how the relationship between a leader's leadership style and the developmental level of followers works. For example, should a leader adapt his leadership style to the average developmental level of twenty followers or to the developmental level of individual group members?

7. A final point of criticism concerns the questionnaires related to the situational management model. Most questionnaires ask followers to analyze different work situations and choose the best leadership style for a work situation. Followers must choose a leadership style from the four listed leadership styles. So the options are limited.

Application and measuring equipment

The principles of the situational approach can be applied at all levels in an organization. The CEO of a company, as well as a floor manager within the same company, can benefit greatly from this approach, which makes it possible to adapt management styles on a case-by-case basis. department to the workforce level. Situational leadership is important in the early stages of a project when it comes to brainstorming, but also in later stages of a project, for example when implementing decisions. Since situational leadership places a high value on leader flexibility, this approach makes sense over time as followers' development levels are constantly changing. Several instruments have been developed to measure situational leadership. These questionnaires typically describe 12 to 20 work situations and ask participants to choose one of the four leadership styles that they find most effective for their work situation. An example of a questionnaire for measuring situational leadership is the short questionnaire.

Part F: Contingency Theory

Fiedler

There are several contingency theories, but the most popular is Fiedler's theory. This theory is also called"Leader-Match Theory"and argues that leaders must be "adapted" to the situation. According to this theory, a leader's effectiveness depends on how well a leadership style fits into a specific context. Effective management is'Subscription'(Depending on) a good match between a leadership style and the right context. Fiedler developed his theory by examining different leadership styles of managers operating in different contexts. He studied the management styles of the managers and also investigated in which situations they used these styles and whether these styles were effective. Based on this research, Fiedler developed an idea about the most effective leadership styles in the e-context. It's all about contingency theorymanagement stylesIThe situation.This theory provides a frame of reference for connecting leaders to situations.

management styles

The contingency theory distinguishes betweentask-related ("task-motivated")Irelationship-related ("relationship-motivated")management styles. A leader is "task-motivated" when he is primarily concerned with achieving goals, while a leader who is primarily "relationship-motivated" is concerned with building good interpersonal relationships. Fiedler developed the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale to measure leadership styles. Leaders who score high on this scale are mainly 'relationship motivated', while leaders who score low on this scale are mainly 'task motivated'.

situational factors

The contingency theory states that situations can be described based on three factors: (1) the relationship between leader and follower.("Relationship between Officers and Members"),(2) Task structure("task structure")and (3) the effect associated with a function("positional power").

1. vonThe relationship between leader and followerconsists of the group mood, the level of trust, loyalty and the extent to which followers identify with the leader. When the group atmosphere is good and the followers trust and get along with the leader, the leader-follower relationship is considered good. But if the mood is bad and friction occurs in the group, the relationship between leader and follower is described as bad.

2. The second is a situational factortask structure.This means to what extent a task is ready. Tasks that are structured as a whole give the manager more control, while vague tasks involve less control and influence on the part of the manager. A task is structured when (1) it is clear what a task is and people understand how to complete the task, (2) there are few ways to complete the task, (3) the completion of a task can be clearly demonstrated and ( 4) there are few ways to complete the task. For example, a highly structured task is cleaning a MacDonald's milkshake machine. It is very clear how it should be done, and it is also immediately clear whether it is done properly. For example, raising money for a good cause is a very unstructured task. This can be done in many different ways and there are no specific rules that anyone has to follow in order to raise money.

3. It is okay"positional force"It depends on how much authority a leader has to reward or punish his followers. It is therefore about the legitimate power that people have, for example through their position in a company. Positional power is strong when someone has the power to hire or fire people, while positional power is weak when there is no power.

desired situations

The three factors mentioned together determine the extent to which certain situations are desirable in a company or organization. Preference is given to situations where there are good follower-leader relationships, clear tasks and strong positional power on the part of the leader. Situations with poor follower-leader relationships, unclear tasks and weaker positional power are not preferred. Based on research, contingency theory states that certain leadership styles are effective in certain situations. People who are primarily task oriented (a low LPC score) will be effective leaders in highly preferred situations, as well as in situations that are not preferred at all. Managers with a low LPC score therefore do well in situations where everything goes very well or not at all. Individuals who are particularly relationally oriented (a high LPC score) are most effective in situations where there is an average preference. These are situations where there is a certain amount of security, but things are not completely structured. It is not clear why this difference in effectiveness exists in different situations between people with high and low LPC levels. Fiedler argued that managers who have to work in a situation that does not suit them are ineffective for the following reasons:

1. Managers whose LPC style does not fit a particular situation suffer from stress and anxiety.

2. Because of this stress, a manager will use poorer coping strategies to deal with the situation.

3. These imperfect coping strategies stem from poor decisions and in turn lead to negative work outcomes.

How does contingency theory work?

A person's LPC score and the three situational factors can be used to predict whether someone will be a good leader in a given situation. "Contingency Theory" is briefly summarized in a diagram on page 124. After the nature of the situation is determined, the fit between management style and situation is examined. According to the table on page 124, managers with a low LPC score are effective in categories 1, 2, 3 and 8, while managers with a high LPC score are effective in categories 1, 2 and 3. These categories are shown in See the table on page 124. When a person's leadership style fits into a certain category in the model, the leader is effective. If one's leadership style does not fit into a certain category, a leader is not effective. Contingency theory states that leaders are not effective in all situations.

Strengths of contingency theory

Contingency theory has several strengths, which are described below.

1. First of all, this theory is supported by empirical research. Contingency theory tells us how effective leadership can be achieved.

2. Contingency theory places more emphasis on the impact of situations on leadership. In the past, people looked only to innate personality traits to explain and describe leadership. Thanks to contingency theory, we now know that context is also an important factor.

3. In addition, this theory has a predictive character. The theory predicts which forms of leadership will be effective in certain situations.

4. Another advantage is that this theory does not imply that people must be effective leaders in all situations. Many managers feel that they have to perform well in all situations, which puts pressure on them. But we know from this theory that managers do not need to have this expectation because they cannot perform well in all situations.

5. Finally, this theory provides data on leadership styles. Companies can use this data to develop leadership profiles. This will give them a better idea of ​​what kind of managers to hire.

Disadvantages of contingency theory

The 'contingency theory' also receives a lot of criticism. These criticisms are described below.

1. One criticism is that the theory does not clearly explain why certain leadership styles are more effective in certain situations and not in others. Fiedler called this the black box problem because it is still not clear why task-oriented leaders do well in very good or very bad situations and relationship-oriented leaders do well in moderately favored situations.

2. Another criticism is the LPC scale itself. This scale does not appear to be valid and does not correlate with other measures of leadership. The LPC scale asks people to rate the behavior of others. Because this judgment is a projection, it is difficult for people to understand how judging other people's behavior tells us anything about their leadership style.

3. The instructions for the LPC scale are also not entirely clear, making it difficult to understand how a respondent should complete this scale. It is not clear to everyone whether it is about judging the least popular colleague("least liked")or to rank the least favorite colleague("preference").

4. A final point of criticism is that the theory does not specify what organizations should do if there is a mismatch between a leader and the situation in which the leader must function. The theory does not explain how leaders can adapt their leadership style to different situations so that their leadership can become more efficient. In fact, it is about how situations must change so that the gap between the situation and the leader disappears. However, it is not clear how exactly this should be done. It is difficult to change situations.

Application and measuring equipment

Contingency theory can be used to answer various questions about leadership in organizations. For example, this theory can be used to explain why a leader is not effective in a situation where that person is doing their best. This theory can also be used to predict whether a person who performs well in one department of a company will be equally effective if they are to work in another department. As previously mentioned, the contingency theory uses LPC (Least Preferred Scale) to clarify the relationship between leaders and situations. This scale measures a person's leadership style by having that person describe a colleague with whom he or she had the most difficulty completing a task. It's not about a colleague someone dislikes the least, but about the colleague a person is least willing to work with. After someone has an idea of ​​which colleague he is dealing with, he must rate that colleague on eighteen points. On this scale, people can score low, medium or high:

1. „Low LPC'ers:These managers are primarily task-oriented. Her primary goal is to complete tasks and her secondary goal is to build a good relationship with her followers. These leaders gain confidence by achieving their goals.

2. „Medium LPC'ers:These managers are socially independent. They don't care about the tasks they have to do or how others judge them. They sort of see the situation from a distance and therefore behave more independently than people with high or low values ​​on the LPC scale.

3. High LPC'ers:These managers value interpersonal relationships the most. Those who score high on this scale even recognize the positive qualities of the colleague they least want to work with. Someone who scores high on the LPC scale also pays attention to tasks, but only if he or she is sure that the relationships between people in the group are good.

Part G: Way-Soul Theory

Motivation

Path-goal theory deals with how leaders motivate their followers to achieve set goals. This theory is therefore mainly based on what forms of motivation are effective for followers. The purpose of this management theory is to improve employee performance and job satisfaction through their leadership skillsMotivationinfluence. Path-goal theory emphasizes the relationship between leadership style, follower characteristics, and work context characteristics. The assumption underlying this theory is based on expectancy theory (“expectancy theory'), who state that followers are more motivated when they believe they are (1) competent enough to do their job, (2) when they believe their efforts will lead to certain outcomes, and (3 ) when they think it's worth working for. do because it produces certain results. It is important that the manager uses a management style that suits him bestmotivational needshis followers. Leaders try to get their followers to become better at achieving the set goals by providing them with information or rewards. House and Mitchell argue that leadership leads to motivation when leadership ensures that people get more for their work. Management would motivate, even if the relationship between the path and the goal is clear, if obstacles on the way to the goal are removed and if the work itself is made satisfactory to the followers.

Leaders, followers and tasks

The path-goal theory attempts to explain how leaders can help their followers by helping them on their journey towards achieving a goal (hence path-goal). Leaders can achieve this by adopting specific behaviors that best suit their followers' needs and the situation they are operating in. By choosing the right leadership style, leaders can ensure that their followers are more successful and happier. The main features of the path-goal theory are: (1) Management behaviour("leadership behavior"),(2) Characteristics of Followers("subfunctions")and (3) occupational characteristics("Job characteristics").Together, these three factors can lead to motivation and thus to the achievement of set goals. All three factors are discussed below.

1. leadership behavior

The path-goal theory distinguishes between four types of leadership:(1) directive (2) supportive (3) participatoryI(4) performance oriented.The four forms are described below.

1. „instructions':This form of leadership is similar to the concept of "initiation structure" in Ohio Studies. A manager with this leadership style gives instructions about a task, explains how a task must be done and within what time frame it must be done. A senior leader provides clear performance guidelines and makes rules and guidelines clear to his followers.

2. „"Supportive management":This kind of leadership is similar to the concept of "consideration" in Ohio Studies. Supportive leaders are kind and welcoming and care about the needs of their followers. Therefore, these leaders try to ensure that work is fun for their followers. They respect their followers and treat them as equals.

3. „"Participatory management":In this type of leadership, a leader wants his followers to be involved in the decision-making process. Participating leaders seek the opinion of their followers and take this into account in their final decisions.

4. „"Performance-oriented management":In this form of leadership, a leader expects his followers to perform optimally. Such a leader has high expectations and wants his followers to develop. These leaders not only have high expectations, but also trust that their followers are competent enough to achieve the set goals.

House and Mitchell argue that leaders can use any of these four leadership styles with different followers and in different situations. The path-goal theory is not a theory that says that a leader adopts one or the other leadership style. According to this theory, leaders can adapt their leadership style to the situation or to the motivational needs of their followers. Sometimes it is also necessary for a manager to use several management styles at the same time.

2. Characteristics of followers

Followers' characteristics determine how leadership behavior is interpreted by them in a particular context. In this connection, researchers have investigated (1) attachment needs("must belong to"),(2) structural preferences("structure preferences"),(3) preference for control("Want to check")and (4) one's perception of one's ability to perform tasksaccomplished ("self-perceived level of task ability").All four factors are discussed below.

1. „need to belong':A person with strong attachment needs has a particular preference for supportive leadership because they value kindness and care from the leader. A leadership style is particularly effective for followers who value rules, act authoritarian and work in an uncertain situation. That's because they especially need itStructureand clarification of tasks. Guiding leadership ensures that the path to be taken to reach the goal becomes less unclear. A person who is primarily authoritarian wants to feel secure.

2. „"Want to check":The question here is whether followers experience control from within or from the environment. someone with one"internal control point"believes that he or she is in control of life events, while a person with a"external control location"is particularly convinced that chance, fate or other external factors determine life events. The "stakeholder theory" says that followers with a "focus on internal control" especially need the participative leadership style, because that way they can be involved in decision-making and thus have control over what happens. People with an 'external locus of control' prefer a senior management style because they feel that external factors influence their situation.

3. „"Subordinates' perception of their own abilities":It is about the perception that followers have of their ability to perform tasks. The more someone feels independent enough to complete tasks, the less they need the associated leadership style. This form of management is experienced as oppressive if someone already has the impression that he can handle tasks without help.

3. job characteristics

In addition to the characteristics of the followers, the characteristics of the tasks also influence the leader's leadership style. Job characteristics are about (1) what a job looks like("Subordinate's Duty"),(2) the formal system of authority("formal authority system")an organization and (3) the primary work group("primary working group")the follower. The tasks that the followers must carry out must be clear. When there is a structured task, strong group norms and a clear authority system, the path to achieving a goal is clear. In this case, there is no need for a manager to clarify the goals. Sometimes a manager has to intervene because of the nature of the job. A manager must structure when tasks are unclear. In addition, managers should provide a lot of support for frequently recurring tasks so that the motivation to perform the tasks repeatedly is maintained. If itformal authority systemWhen leadership is weak, leadership becomes a means of helping followers by setting rules and clarifying job requirements. If itgroup normsis weak, leadership serves to strengthen the sense of belonging.

obstacle

Path-goal theory also focuses on removing obstacles to goal attainment. Obstacles cause uncertainty and frustration. In such cases, a manager has a responsibility to remove these obstacles so that employees feel empowered to do their jobs and are satisfied with the work they do. In 1996, House published an updated version of the path-goal theory. Using the updated version of this theory, he argues that there are eight types of leadership behavior. In addition to (1) "directive," (2) "supportive," (3) "participative," and (4) "performance-oriented" leadership, there are four other leadership styles: (5) "work-facilitating," (6) "group-oriented decision-making ", (7) "Work Group Representation and Networking" and (8) "Value-Based Leadership Behavior". The core of the new theory is the same as the old theory: effective leaders give their followers what they lack in their environment and help them fill gaps in their skills.

How does the path-goal theory work?

The path-goal theory is not only complex but also pragmatic. This theory provides an idea of ​​how different leadership styles interact with employee characteristics and the work situation to influence employee motivation. The theory tells us how leaders can help their followers achieve set goals. The diagram below shows how follower characteristics and task attributes are related depending on leadership style. So this chart shows which leadership style works best with certain followers and job characteristics.

The road, the goal and obstacles

The path-goal theory is very clear. A successful leader must be interested in the needs of his followers. In addition, a manager must clarify goals, but also clarify the path to achieving goals. If there are obstacles along the way, an effective leader must make those obstacles disappear by confronting a follower with an obstacle.

Strengths of the path-goal theory

Path-goal theory has a number of strengths which are highlighted below.

1. First, this theory provides a clear frame of reference for understanding how leadership styles affect employee satisfaction and performance. This theory is also one of the first theories to emphasize the influence of job and employee characteristics in determining an effective leadership style.

2. Another advantage is that this theory used the motivational principles of expectancy theory to develop a theory of leadership styles. This makes path-goal theory unique, as no other management approach examines employee motivation to perform tasks in this way.

3. The last and biggest advantage is that this theory is very practical. This theory clearly shows how leaders can help their followers. This makes it clear that leaders have a responsibility to clarify the path to the goal and remove obstacles on this path.

Disadvantages of the path-goal theory

The disadvantages of the path-goal theory are outlined below.

1. First, this theory is very complex because it considers many different aspects of leadership. This can make it difficult to interpret the theory correctly. The theory provides, for example, information about which management style fits well with follower characteristics, task characteristics, task structuring and task clarity. It is difficult to integrate all these factors and then say that a management style fits that combination of factors.

2. Another disadvantage is that this theory is only partially supported by scientific studies. Some studies show that a leadership style is positively related to satisfaction with one's own performance, while this relationship could not be found in other studies. In addition, some parts of the theory are almost completely unstudied. Many studies have been done on the leading and supportive leadership styles, but much less on the other two leadership styles.

3. Another criticism is that the theory does not precisely explain how leadership behavior and follower motivation are related. Expectancy theory states that followers are motivated when they feel competent and believe that their rewards will lead to specific outcomes. However, path-goal theory does not tell us how a leader can use different leadership styles to make his followers feel competent.

4. A final criticism is that this theory sees leadership as a two-way street: a leader must clarify goals and remove obstacles in order for his followers to perform well. The theory does not state how followers can influence their leader.

Application and measuring equipment

The path-goal theory is not an approach that specifically aims to train people to become better leaders. No seminars are therefore held following this approach. Still, it can be said that this theory provides information on how to become a better leader. The theory provides recommendations about which leadership style is effective given the presence of certain follower and task characteristics. For example, it says that managers must be supportive when tasks are complicated, and that managers must be especially supportive when tasks are boring. The principles of this theory can be used by all departments in an organization. The Path-Goal Leadership Questionnaire is used to measure key aspects of path-goal leadership. This questionnaire provides information on four different leadership styles: (1) directive, (2) supportive, (3) participative, and (4) performance oriented. A large number of respondents to each of these leadership styles can provide insight into how important certain leadership styles are to these respondents. In addition to this questionnaire, it is also possible to examine the task structure, the control point, the followers' expectations and the employees' satisfaction with their work.

Part H: Exchange between managers and members

leaders and followers

Most of the theories discussed so far emphasize either the leader ("trait approach", "skill approach" and "style approach") or the follower and the context ("situational leadership" when explaining leadership). "Contingency Theory" and "Contingency Theory". "Path-goal theory"), "Leader-Member-Exchange-Theory" (LMX-Theory), on the other hand, sees leadership as a process based oninteractionsbetween leaders and followers. LMX theory mainly focuses ondyadic relationshipbetween leaders and followers. This is the relationship between each follower and the leader. Before this theory emerged, leadership was seen as something that happened to its followers. Leaders were believed to treat their followers equally by choosing average leadership, so to speak. The LMX theory has ensured that we now know that there can be a difference between a leader and different followers.

Early studies

LMX theory was formerly known as Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL) theory. Researchers at the time focused primarily on "vertical connections" that leaders form with each follower. A manager's relationship to a work unit as a whole is seen as a summation of several vertical pairs. A dyad is a pair consisting of the leader and a follower. Researchers studied vertical pairs and found that there are two types of pairings:

1. „in a group': Relationships based on extended role responsibilities ("additional roles").

2. „Outside the group:Relationships based on the formal employment contract.

In and out group

Within a work unit, each follower is part of the in or out group, depending on how well he or she can work with the leader and how well the leader can work with that follower. Personality and other personal characteristics play a role here. It is also important whether followers want to expand their role responsibility towards the leader. Followers who like to tell the leader what they want to do for the group become part of the in-group. They strive to take on responsibilities beyond the mandatory job requirements they must fulfill. A leader also wants to do more for followers in his own group. Followers who do not want to take on new tasks become part of the outgroup. Followers in the group receive more information, influence and trust from the leader than members outside the group. Followers from your own group are also more involved, and the leader can really count on them. Out-group followers are really only at work to work and then go home.

Subsequent investigations

After the previous studies, there was a change in the LMX theory. While earlier studies mainly focused on the differences between the in and out groups, later studies focused more on how LMX theory relates to effectiveness in organizations and companies. These studies primarily focus on how manager-employee interaction is associated with positive outcomes for managers, employees, groups and the organization as a whole. Research has shown that a good interaction between a manager and his subordinates results in fewer absences from work, more positive performance reviews, more promotions, more involvement, more enjoyable tasks, better attitudes, more attention and support from the manager, more involvement and faster progress. leads to growth in an organization. It also appears that followers who have a good relationship with their boss are more energetic and therefore more involved in their work. This applies especially to employees who do not feel particularly empowered. In short, research shows that organizations benefit greatly from a good relationship between a leader and his followers.

„"take control"

Researchers conducting studies based on LMX theory are curious about how leader-follower interaction can be used to guide leaders. In this case, it is a prescriptive leadership approach, which states that a leader must have quality interactions with all followers, not just a few followers. Each follower should feel like a part of their own group. To achieve this, a manager must build effective dyads with all employees in the work unit. In addition, according to the leadership-creating approach, managers can build relationship networks throughout the organization, so that the organization's goals can be better achieved, and the manager can also develop further. Graen and Uhl-Bien argue that leadership consists of three phases:

1. „The alien phase':In the first phase, the interaction between leader and follower is mainly based on rules. The leader and the follower communicate with each other using predetermined organizational roles. The interaction is therefore not of high quality. The follower does what is asked of him to be rewarded. The follower therefore works mainly for himself and not for the whole group.

2. The "getting to know each other" phase:In the second phase, the leader or follower comes up with a proposal to improve social interactions in the workplace. This often includes sharing resources and sharing personal or work-related information. It is a time when the follower wants to take more responsibility. The follower wants to know if the leader has other challenges for him or her. Interaction at this stage is no longer just about formal job descriptions.

3. „The mature partnership phase”:Quality interaction takes place in the final stage. There is mutual trust, respect and commitment towards each other. The leader and the follower have put their relationship to the test and know that they can count on each other. The leader influences the follower in this phase, but the follower also influences the leader. Research by Schriesheim, Castro, Zhou and Yammarino shows that in this phase there is more equality between leader and follower and also a greater distribution of control between these individuals. In this phase, leaders and followers show favors to each other and also assume a supportive role. In short, the relationship between a leader and his followers at this stage is much more than just a hierarchical relationship based on their professional position.

Quality relations

When a quality relationship exists between a leader and a follower, that follower may receive preferential treatment and more feedback on their performance. In this way, a follower also has more access to superiors. When a relationship is not of high quality, leader and follower have little trust in each other, followers receive little support from their leader, and followers do not enjoy the benefits of their position. In order to measure the interaction between leader and follower, a short questionnaire is often used, in which the participants are asked how effective they rate their working relationships. The questionnaire measures the extent to which the participants show respect, trust and commitment in their relationships with others.

How does the LMX theory work?

LMX theory actually works both ways. On the one hand, the theory describes what leadership is (“descriptive”), and on the other hand, the theory describes how leadership should be (“prescriptive”). At the heart of this theory is the dyadic relationship that a leader enters into individually with all followers. LMX theory states that it is important to recognize that there are groups inside and outside organizations. This is the descriptive element of the theory. In- and out-groups achieve their goals in different ways. The in-group allows a manager to get more work done and do it efficiently. Group members are willing to go beyond their contract. They are creative and try to find new ways to achieve the group's goals. Because they try harder, leaders give people in this group more responsibility. Leaders also place more emphasis on leading their own group and support people from that group more. People from the outgroup do not do extra work and only do the work they are assigned to. They do what is necessary and no more. Managers treat people from this group fairly, but do not pay much attention to them. As previously mentioned, LMX theory also tells us what leadership should look like. Graen and Uhl-Bien argue that leaders should have a special relationship with all their followers. All followers should actually be part of the in-group. The leadership development model states that leaders should not focus on the differences between the in- and out-group, but build a relationship of trust with all their followers, so that the entire work unit becomes, so to speak, one big in-group. Group.

Reinforces LMX theory

The LMX theory has a number of strengths which are listed below.

1. The LMX theory is a very descriptive theory. It makes sense to describe work units in terms of people who contribute more or less to achieving the set goals. Anyone who has ever held a job feels that some members belong to the in-group while other members seem to belong to the out-group. We also know that leaders have a better relationship with followers beyond what is necessary. The LMX theory vividly describes this situation.

2. Another strength is that LMX theory is the only approach that emphasizes the importance of dyadic relationships. Other approaches look primarily at characteristics of leaders, followers, context, or a combination of these factors.

3. The LMX theory is also strong because it says that communication is very important to management. According to this theory, effective leadership goes hand in hand with high quality interaction. Then there is mutual trust, respect and commitment.

4. Another strength of this theory is that it is important for managers to remain alert. You should not categorize people into in-group or out-group based on irrelevant factors such as race or religion. It is important for a leader to be fair and treat all followers equally.

5. A final plus is that many studies have been conducted to explore the relationship between LMX theory and positive job outcomes. Research shows that the interaction between leader and follower is related to, among other things, performance, commitment, working environment and innovations.

Disadvantages of the LMX theory

Despite the strengths of the LMX theory, this theory also has some weaknesses. These points are listed below.

1. First, we learn from an early age that everyone should be treated equally and that it is not good to form groups or cliques because it can make others feel left out. However, the LMX theory distinguishes between the in-group and the out-group, and the in-group is treated better by a manager according to this theory. This may indicate outgroup discrimination. The theory does not speak negatively about ingroup preference. Furthermore, LMX theory also does not explain how people can be part of the ingroup. LMX theory also does not consider justice in terms of promotion (distributive justice), decision-making (procedural justice) or communication within an organization (interactive justice).

2. Another criticism is that the core concepts of the theory are not well developed. For example, the theory does not make clear how a high-quality interaction occurs. The theory simply states that it is good for a leader to have a quality interaction with a follower. How to do it is not explained. It is also not clear how respect and trust should be created in this way of dealing with each other. Furthermore, there is no attention to contextual attention points that can affect the model.

3. Another point of criticism concerns the measurement of the interaction between leader and follower according to the LMX theory. For example, no empirical studies have been conducted to date using dyadic measurement tools to analyze the LMX process. Most existing scales do not have good content validity. This means that the scale is not measuring correctly what it is supposed to measure.

Application and measuring equipment

LMX theory is not specifically designed to provide training based on it. Nevertheless, managers can use the LMX theory to improve their leadership behavior. The LMX theory encourages managers to look at management from a relational perspective and to think about in- and out-groups in their department. LMX theory also states that leaders should try to build strong relationships with all their followers. These principles can be applied at all levels of an organization. Also, the principles of LMX theory can be applied in different types of organizations; from voluntary organizations to government-affiliated organizations. LMX theory encourages leaders to appreciate the value of good relationships and to see if some followers get more attention than others. To date, researchers have used a variety of questionnaires to study LMX theory. These questionnaires are all designed to assess the quality of the relationship between a leader and a follower. An example is the LMX 7. This is a seven-item questionnaire that reliably and validly measures the quality of the interaction between a leader and a follower. The questionnaire measures three dimensions of interaction between leader and follower: (1) respect, (2) trust and (3) involvement.

Part I: Transformational Leadership

change and development

One of the most popular management approaches is the transformational approach. Transformational leadership is part of the New Leadership paradigm, which focuses primarily on the charismatic and emotional elements of leadership. Bass and Ragio argue that this approach is attractive because it focuses on intrinsic motivation and follower development. Research shows that a third of the studies are about transformational or transformational studiescharismaticGuide. This type of leadership involves a process that changes (“transforms”) people. In this context, feelings, values, ethics and long-term goals are important. It is also important to understand followers' motivations, to meet their needs and to treat them humanely. Transformational leadership empowers employees to achieve more than is normally expected of them. Many forms of management can be described with this form of management; From very specific attempts to influence followers to attempts to influence entire organizations and cultures.

The definition of transformational leadership

Downton was the first scientist to use this concept"transformative leadership"needed. This term comes from the work of Burns. He tried to create a connection between management and compliance. Burns argued that leaders understand their followers' motives to achieve their own goals, as well as those of their followers. He also explained that leadership is different from power. He distinguishes between two types of leadership:(1) transactionI(2) transformative leadership.

1. transaction managementis about all management models that focus on the interaction between leaders and followers. For example, politicians who, in order to win votes, declare that they will not introduce new taxes, practice transactional management.

2. Transformational leadershipOn the other hand, it involves the process by which a person interacts with others and forms a bond that increases the motivation and morale of both the leader and the follower. Such a leader is aware of his followers' needs and motivations and therefore tries to bring out the best in his followers. An example is Gandhi, who gave millions of people confidence in the future. This change also changed Gandhi himself.

Pseudo-transformational leadership

According to Burns, Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein would also be transformational leaders. It is true that they were transformative, but they were negative. That's why Bass talked about itpseudo-transformational leadership.This term is used for leaders who are selfish, exploitative, power-oriented and have poor morals. This type of leader only thinks about themselves and their own interests and considers the interests of others unimportant.Authentic transformational leadershipis a social form of leadership where both the interests of the followers and the interests of the leaders are paramount. This type of leadership is positively related to the ethical climate in the group and moral behavior.

Transformational leadership and charisma

House developed a theory of charismatic leadership. Since the publication of this theory, scholars have paid much attention to charismatic leadership. This form of leadership is often described in the same way as transformational leadership, although the two terms are not synonymous. The word'Appearance'was first used to describe a special gift, namely the ability to do very special things. Weber found a definition of this word that is still used today. He explained that charisma is a personality trait that gives a person extraordinary powers. According to Weber, very few people have this gift. People who possess this gift will be treated as leaders. While noting that charisma is a personality trait, Weber also argued that followers should be able to recognize a leader's charisma. House argued that charismatic leaders behave in unique ways. These unique paths would have particular charismatic implications for these leaders' followers. House found that charismatic leaders have four personality traits, six behaviors and nine types of influence on their followers. These factors are shown schematically below.

House theory

House's theory has been revised and expanded over the years. For example, Shamir, House, and Arthur made a major change to the theory. They argue that charismatic leadership changes the way followers see themselves. They also argue that charismatic leadership seeks to link followers' identities to the organization's collective identity. Charismatic leaders can make this connection by making work intrinsically rewarding rather than emphasizing extrinsic rewards. This allows followers to see their work as an expression of themselves.

A model of transformative leadership

In the mid-1980s, Bass developed a broader model of transformative leadership based on the work of Burns and House. Bass was more attentive to the needs of the followers than the needs of the leaders. He argued that transformative leadership can be used in situations where the results are not positive. He also argued that transactional and transformative leadership lie on a continuum and are not two independent concepts. Bass also focused on the emotional elements of charisma. He argued that charisma is a necessary factor for transformative leadership, but it is not a sufficient factor. Bass argued that transformational leadership affects the motives of followers and encourages them to do more than what is expected of them. This can be achieved by (1) making followers more aware of the importance and value of stated goals, (2) getting followers to abandon self-interest for the benefit of a team or organization, and (3) increasing followership within the organization. function to meet their needs. The transformational and transactional leadership model consists of seven factors, which are divided into three types of leadership. These factors are shown schematically below and then explained.

Transformational leadership

Transformational leadership is about improving the performance of followers, and it is also important that they can bring out the best in themselves. People who exercise this type of leadership often have strong values ​​and ideals and are good at motivating others to work towards common goals rather than self-interest. There are four factors to this type of leadership. These factors are discussed below.

1. „"Idealized Influence"/"Charisma" (Factor 1): This factor is about leadership, where leaders act as strong role models who make their followers conform to their wishes. These leaders often have high moral and ethical standards. They are respected and trusted by their followers. There is an attributional component and a behavioral component.

2. „"Inspiring motivation" (factor 2): This factor describes leaders who have high expectations of their followers and are able to express them. These leaders can also motivate their followers to engage and be part of the organization's shared vision. In this context, leaders use symbols and emotional cues to get their followers to do more than is necessary for their self-interest. Team spirit is strengthened by this type of leadership.

3. „"Intellectual stimulation" (factor 3):This factor is about encouraging followers to be creative, innovative and challenge their own beliefs and values ​​as well as those of the leader.

4. „"Personal considerations" (factor 4):This factor is about leaders supporting and listening closely to their followers. A manager acts as a coach and gives advice.

A comparison

Transformational leadership is more influential than transactional leadership. Transactional leadership leads to expected results, while transformative leadership leads to performance that far exceeds expectations. Research shows that people who use transformational leadership are better leaders than people who only use transactional leadership. It also appears that the four factors of transformative leadership are, among other things, related to job satisfaction and performance.

transaction management

Transactional leadership, unlike transformative leadership, is not about personal development of followers. A transactional leader influences his followers by expecting them to do what is expected of them.

There are two factors in transaction management which are explained below.

1. „"Contingent consideration" (factor 5):This factor means that the followers' efforts are rewarded. The leader first discusses what needs to be done with his followers and then shares with them the rewards for achieving the discussed goals. An example is a parent who says that a child can watch TV for an hour after playing the piano for half an hour.

2. „"Administration-by-Exception" (Faktor 6):This factor includes criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement. Administration by exception can take two forms: (1) active and (2) passive. A leader who uses the active voice is very aware of his followers' mistakes or transgressions and then tries to act to change those mistakes. A manager who uses the passive voice intervenes only when demands are not met or problems arise. Both the active and passive forms of this factor generate more negative reactions than factor five, which mainly affects reward.

let it be so

There really is no such thing as laissez-faire management. The leader does not act responsibly, delay decisions, provide feedback, or make efforts to meet the needs of his followers. This leader also does not allow his followers to grow and develop.

Other transformation perspectives

Besides Bass, (1) Bennis and Nanus and (2) Kouzes and Posner have also written their own ideas about transformational leadership. They have developed management models based on interviews they have conducted with managers.

Bennis and Dwarf

Bennis and Nanus asked 90 managers questions about their leadership. The research results showed that transformational leaders employ four strategies. These factors are explained below.

1. You have one readyVision ("Vision")about the future of the organization they work in; This image is often realistic and believable.

2. In addition, transformational leaders are social architects("social artist")for your own organization. This means that they help shape the organization they work for in the social field.

3. These leaders also inspire confidence('To trust') by knowing their own position in an organization well.

4. Finally these guidesa creative expression of yourselfthrough a positive self-image("positive self-esteem"). That is, they know their own good and bad qualities, but emphasize their strengths most of all.

Kouzes en Posner

Kouzes and Posner interviewed more than 1,300 leaders to gain more insight into transformative leadership. Based on the research results, they designed a management model. This model consists of five basic factors('practice methods exercises')Empowering leaders to achieve extraordinary things. The model is predominantly prescriptive. This means that the model mainly tells us how managers should behave. Kouzes and Posner claim that the five factors can be learned by anyone. To measure the extent to which individuals employ these transformative leadership qualities, Kouzes and Posner developed the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). The five factors that Kouzes and Posner talk about are discussed below.

1. „Model the road':Leaders must be clear about their values ​​and ideology. You must be able to express this to others. They are role models that others can learn from. They also keep what they promise.

2. „Inspire a shared vision”:This means that transformational leaders try to create a shared vision that can guide people's behavior.

3. „Challenge the process':This means that a leader must have growth and improvement in mind. A leader must also dare to take risks.

4. „"Enable others to act":Good transformational leaders are good at working with people. You build trusting relationships and encourage collaboration. You can listen to different perspectives and respect them all. Transformational leaders also allow for other decisions.

5. „"Encourage the Heart":This means that transformational leaders reward others for their performance. It is natural that people want support and recognition. Effective leaders understand this need and can praise their followers.

How does the transformation approach work?

The transformation approach consists of different dimensions of the management process. This approach describes how leaders can bring about change in an organization. Transformational leaders strive to make individuals more aware of their motivations and ensure that they act in the best interests of others. Transformational leadership creates an atmosphere that encourages employees to be open and try new things. Transformational leaders act as role models to initiate change. They have strong moral values ​​and a clear self-image. They are self-confident, competent and good lecturers. They listen to their followers and are tolerant of other perspectives. These types of leaders work well with followers who trust them. Transformational leaders also have a clear vision. This vision stems from the common interests of all circles and work units in an organization. Through this vision, the leader knows in which direction the organization should go. The transformational approach also says that leaders must be social architects. This means that they must formulate the values ​​and norms of an organization by shaping the meaning of the organization itself. Transformative leadership makes people feel better about themselves and the contribution they make to common goals.

Strengths of the transformation approach

The transformational approach has six strengths, which are discussed below.

1. First, this approach has been extensively studied since the 1970s. More than a third of the scientific articles written between 1990 and 2000 deal with transformative or charismatic leadership.

2. Transformational leadership fits our ideas about leadership. We believe that leaders must be able to initiate change. It is an attractive idea for managers to have a vision for the future.

3. Another strength is that this approach defines leadership as a process that takes place between leaders and followers. The approach emphasizes the needs of both leaders and followers, and leadership is not seen as something that leaders alone are responsible for. This approach argues that leadership arises from the interaction between followers and leaders. The needs of others play a central role for transformational leaders.

4. In addition, this approach has an integrated vision of management. Other approaches focus primarily on how managers provide rewards after goals are achieved. So you emphasize the transaction process. In addition to rewards, the transformational perspective also considers other needs of followers.

5. Another strength is that this approach emphasizes the needs, values ​​and morals of followers. For example, Burns argues that transformative leadership causes followers to adopt higher standards of moral responsibility. This happens because they have an incentive to work for the benefit of the team and not just themselves.

6. Another strength is that research shows that transformational leadership is an effective form of leadership. This type of leadership is positively related to employee satisfaction, motivation and performance.

Disadvantages of the transformation approach

The transformation approach also has some disadvantages. These points are listed below.

1. The first flaw is that this approach is not conceptually clear. Because so many factors affecting transformative leadership are discussed, it is difficult to pinpoint the key points of transformative leadership. Research also shows that the four factors of transformative leadership (from Bass) are related.

2. Another point of criticism concerns the way transformational leadership is measured. According to some scientists, the MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire) is not valid. The four factors of transformational leadership would correlate too strongly in this questionnaire. This means that these factors are not independent of each other. It also appears that some transformational factors also correlate with transactional factors and the laissez-faire factor.

3. Another criticism is that this approach sees leadership as a personality trait rather than a behavior that people can learn. Since this approach primarily focuses on the way leaders interact with their followers, it quickly turns out that it is all about the personality traits of leaders. For example, transformational leaders appear to have certain personality traits that enable them to change others.

4. In addition, some people argue that transformational leadership is not democratic. Transformational leaders often create change in an organization in a direct way. This makes it appear as if a leader acts independently of and puts himself above his followers.

5. To date, no one has been able to prove that leaders are able to transform organizations or individuals. So far, there is no evidence of a causal relationship.

6. The final flaw is that this approach can be easily abused. Transformational leadership changes people's values ​​so that they see things from a new perspective. But who decides whether this new direction is good?

Application and measuring equipment

This approach mainly shows how leaders are who want to initiate change. Unlike, for example, contingency theory or situational leadership, the approach does not assume how managers must behave in order to be successful. This perspective states that leaders must be aware of how their behavior relates to the needs of their followers and the changing dynamics of an organization. Bass and Avolio argue that this type of leadership can be taught to people from all different departments in an organization. In transformational leadership programs, it is often stated that the MLQ should be completed first to identify an individual's strengths and weaknesses. Based on these results, individuals can learn what to work on. Researchers state that the MLQ has a high validity. Bryman, Bass, and Avolio argue that the MLQ's charisma and motivation factors are most closely associated with positive effects. In second place are 'individualized attention', 'intellectual stimulation' and 'contingent reward'. The passive form of leadership-by-exception is slightly related to work outcomes, while the active form is negatively related to work outcomes. Laissez-faire leadership also appears to have a negative impact on outcomes such as efficiency and job satisfaction.

Teil J: Servant Leadership

Servant leadership is a paradox: From our leadership perspective, leaders influence and follow their followers: leaders, not servants. But while this approach seems counterintuitive, it gives us a unique perspective. Servant leadership has been studied for more than 40 years. Most scholarly work on this topic is prescriptive and focuses on what servant leadership should ideally look like. In the past 10 years, more comprehensive scientific work on servant leadership has also been published, describing what servant leadership is in practice. Like other leadership theories, servant leadership focuses on the leader's point of view and behavior. Servant Leadership emphasizes that leaders put followers first and that leaders act ethically and lead in ways that are best for the organization, society and society as a whole.

The definition of servant leadership

Scholars have given different definitions of servant leadership. Greenleaf's definition is most widely used: “Servant leadership begins with a sense of wanting to serve; Service comes first.” After this, a conscious choice leads to the aspiration to lead. The difference can be seen in the care of the servant – especially in ensuring that the top priorities of others are taken into account. The best test of this is: those who are served grow up as people; Are these people becoming healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous and more likely to become servants themselves? And what impact does it have on the least privileged in society? Do they benefit from it, or are they at least not further disadvantaged?” Servant leaders thus place the well-being of their followers above their self-interest, value their followers' development, and have strong morals. Anyone can learn to be a servant leader.

The historical foundation of servant leadership

Greenleaf coined the term servant leadership and is the author of important works on the subject. His work had a profound impact on the development of servant leadership, both practical and theoretical. After his retirement, Greenleaf began exploring how organizations function and how they can better serve society. He strongly opposed coercion and advocated communication within groups to achieve consensus. Greenleaf owes the formulation of the servant's guide to the book "Journey to the East" by Herman Hesse. This book tells the story of a group of people who go on a journey with a servant. The servant performs the tasks for the people and supports them with his cheerfulness. When the servant leaves the group, the group becomes confused and leaves the journey. They couldn't go on without the waiter, so eventually the waiter was the leader of the group. Greenleaf also says that a servant leader has a social responsibility. A servant leader tries to eradicate inequality and social injustice.

Characteristics of a servant leader

Spears identified ten characteristics of servant leadership in Greenleaf's work. These characteristics form the first model of servant leadership.

1. listen (listen)

Servant leaders communicate by listening first. By listening, the prime ministers acknowledge the views of the rank and file and affirm those perspectives.

2. Empathy

When servant leaders show empathy, they show that they truly understand what their followers are thinking and feeling. When a leader shows empathy, the follower sees validation and approval and feels unique.

3. Support ("Healing")

Servant leaders care about the personal well-being of their followers. They help followers with personal problems. Helping their followers makes them whole, but the leaders themselves also become whole.

4. conscience

Awareness is an attribute of servant leaders that adapts and sensitizes them to their physical, social, and political environment. This includes understanding yourself and being aware of the impact you have on others. This awareness enables servant leaders to see themselves in the larger context of the situation.

5. faith ("faith")

Persuasion tries to bring about change with soft, non-judgmental arguments.

6. conceptualization ("conceptualization")

Conceptualization is about an individual's ability to be visionary for the organization and set clear goals and direction. These servant leaders can creatively solve organizational problems.

7. foresight

Foresight is about the ability of leaders to know the future. The future can be predicted based on the current situation and past events.

8. Administration

The point is that the leader must take responsibility for the leadership role he or she has filled. Servant leaders take responsibility for the careful management of people and organizations.

9. Dedication to human growth

Servant leaders help each person in the organization grow personally and professionally.

10. Building a Community (Building a Community)

Servant leaders build communities to give people a place where they feel safe and connected to others, but also where they can express their own individuality.

Developing a theory of servant leadership

Servant leadership has long been an approximation and not a true theory. Nevertheless, servant leadership is used as a guiding philosophy in many organizations. Recently, researchers have begun to develop a theory of servant leadership. This has led to various models describing servant leadership with many variables. There is great disagreement among researchers about the characteristics of servant leadership. No study describes servant leadership in exactly the same way. Some studies view servant leadership as a character trait, while others see it as a behavioral process. While scholars disagree about the key characteristics of servant leadership, these studies provide the necessary foundation for developing a servant leadership model.

The servant leadership model

This model consists of three main parts: demands, servant leadership behaviors, and leadership outcomes. The model aims to illustrate the phenomenon of servant leadership and provide a framework for understanding the difficulties of this phenomenon. The three main components are explained below.

Previous situations ("preconditions")

There are three preliminary situations that affect the management process:

1. Context and Culture ("Context and Culture")

Servant leadership takes place in a specific organizational context and corporate culture. The nature of this context and culture influences how servant leadership is practiced.

2. Leader's Characteristics ("Leadership Characteristics")

The leader's qualities and talents influence the servant leadership process. Individuals bring their own personality traits and leadership ideas to leadership situations. This is how leaders demonstrate servant leadership.

3. Follows responsiveness

Follower responsiveness has to do with whether all followers want servant leadership. Research shows that some followers do not want to work with servant leaders. Research shows that appointing a servant leader for devotees has a positive impact on performance. When the followers did not want a servant leader, the opposite was the case.

behavior of servant leaders

There are seven servant leadership behaviors that are at the core of the servant leadership process:

1. conceptualize ("conceptualize")

It's about understanding the organization's servant leader – its goals, complexity and mission. This ability enables the manager to solve problems in creative ways.

2. Emotional support ("emotional healing")

It means being sensitive to the well-being of others and other people who see their problems and take the time to help them. Servant leaders help others.

3. Put followers first

This is the main feature of Servant Leaders. This means that servant leaders put the interests and outcomes of their followers above their own.

4. The followers help to grow and succeed

It's about knowing the followers' goals on a personal and professional level and helping them achieve those goals. The bottom line is that servant leaders help their followers reach their full potential.

5. Ethical Behavior (Ethical Behavior)

It means doing the right thing in the right way. Servant leaders do not compromise their ethical standards to succeed.

6. Authorization ("Authorization")

It's about giving followers the freedom to be independent, make their own decisions and be self-sufficient. This is how leaders share power with their followers. Authorization strengthens followers' trust.

7. Creating value for the community

Servant leaders create community value by giving back to the community. They engage in local activities and encourage their followers to volunteer in the local community.

leadership outcomes

There are three outcomes of servant leadership:

1. Follow-up performance and growth

In the servant leadership model, most of the leader's behaviors are designed to help the follower reach their full potential. The expected result for followers is more self-actualization. Research also shows that servant leadership makes followers do their jobs more effectively. The expected end result is that followers of Servant Leaders become Servant Leaders themselves.

2. organizational performance

Research has shown that servant leadership leads to follower behaviors that go beyond their official duties and support organizational functioning. Servant leadership also improves team effectiveness.

3. Social impact

Servant leadership is most likely to have a positive impact on society as well. Organizations become healthier through servant leadership and this ultimately has a positive impact on society.

How does servant leadership work?

The servant leadership approach works very differently from the other leadership theories. Servant Leadership focuses on how leaders should behave to put their followers first and support their personal growth. It's about how leaders interact with their followers and the results. Servant leadership works like this: When leaders prioritize building long-term relationships with their followers, they know their needs and goals. This allows them to help their followers reach their full potential. When many leaders in an organization do this, a culture of service to others is created. Servant leadership works best when leaders have an interest in helping others and when their followers are open to servant leadership. The underlying philosophy of servant leadership is that leaders should share their power and thus promote equality in the organization. Finally, servant leadership also leads to community and a change in society for the better.

Strengths of servant leadership

The four strengths of servant leadership are discussed below.

1. Servant leadership is unique in that it places selflessness at the center of the leadership process. It is the only management approach that puts the principle of caring for others first.

2. Another point is that servant leadership has a provocative approach to managerial power. Almost all management theories see influence as a positive factor in management processes, while servant leadership sees it as a negative factor. Servant leadership says that power and control should be shared with followers.

3. Research has also shown that servant leadership is not always the right type of leadership. If followers are not receptive to servant leadership, this approach to leadership will not help.

4. The last point is that there is a good benchmark for measuring servant leadership, namely the Servant Leadership Questionnaire (SLQ). This questionnaire contains 28 items that identify seven dimensions of servant leadership.

Disadvantages of servant leadership

The four shortcomings of servant leadership are discussed below.

1. First of all, the name Servant Leadership seems very contradictory, so the approach can be considered unpredictable.

2. Another point is that researchers disagree about the core dimensions of the process. Scholars still disagree on a definition or theoretical framework for servant leadership.

3. Servant leadership also means putting others first, but it is at odds with individual autonomy and other leadership principles such as leadership, ensuring production, setting goals and creating visions.

4. Finally, it is unclear why conceptualization is part of servant leadership behavior. Is conceptualization a behavior or rather a cognitive ability? Future research needs a clearer explanation of the role of conceptualization in servant leadership.

Application and measuring equipment

Servant leadership can be practiced at all management levels and in all types of organizations. Servant leadership has been practiced in various organizations for over 30 years. Servant leadership training often includes self-assessment exercises, training sessions and goal setting. If an organization strives for a culture of servant leadership, it must select people who are interested in building relationships with others and who have a strong sense of morality.

The Servant Leadership Questionnaire measures servant leadership with 28 items that measure the 7 dimensions of servant leadership: conceptualization, emotional support, putting followers first, helping followers grow and succeed, ethical behavior, empowerment, and creating value for the community.

Part K: Authentic Leadership

Authentic leadership focuses on whether leadership is fair and right. Authentic leadership is about thatauthenticityof managers and their management. The concept of authentic leadership is still relatively new and little researched. This concept was already discussed in transformation research, but not much attention was paid to it at the time. Researchers are still trying to determine the core values ​​of authentic leadership. This chapter explains what authentic leadership is and what underlies this type of leadership. In addition, two approaches that focus on authentic leadership are discussed: (1) the hands-on approach("convenient access")and the (2) theoretical approach("Theoretical Approach").Strengths and weaknesses of this approach are also discussed.

The definition of authentic leadership

So far, no definition of authentic leadership has been developed that all researchers agree on. There are several definitions of this term, each based on a different premise. In general, there are three types of definitions: (1) intrapersonal, (2) developmental, and (3) interpersonal.

1. The intrapersonal definition

vonintrapersonlig definitionAuthentic leadership focuses primarily on the leader himself and what occupies him. Think about self-knowledge, self-regulation and the leader's self-image. Shamir and Eilam argue that authentic leaders are honest leaders and do not imitate others in their leadership. These researchers also argue that authentic leadership is influenced by a leader's life history and the importance a leader places on their life experiences. Shamir and Eilam also explained that minions play an important role in authentic leadership. They must have realistic expectations of their managers.

2. The development definition

vondevelopment definitionauthentic leadership is given by onedevelopmentsPerspective. Authentic leadership is seen from this perspective as something that can grow in a leader. Authentic leadership is therefore not seen as a fixed personality trait. Walumbwa argues that authentic leadership represents a pattern of leadership behavior that develops through a leader's psychological attributes and strong ethics. This scholar argues that authentic leadership consists of four components: (1) Self-awareness("Self-awareness"),(2) an internalized moral perspective("internalized moral perspective"),(3) balanced treatment("balanced treatment")and (4) relational transparency("relational transparency").Over time, authentic leaders learn to develop each of these behaviors.

3. The interpersonal definition

voninterpersonal definitionfocuses on the relational aspects of authentic leadership. This kind of leadership would arise not only from the efforts of the leader but also from the reactions of his followers. Authenticity would emerge from the interaction between leaders and followers. Leadership can only be effective if followers can identify with the leader's values, and leaders can only effect change if they are aligned with their followers' values.

Approaches to authentic leadership

So far, there have been two approaches to authentic leadership: (1) the practical approach and (2) the theoretical approach. The practical approach is based on examples from everyday life and development literature. The theoretical approach is based on findings from the social sciences.

Practical approaches

People want to know how to become authentic leaders. Two practical approaches to authentic leadership are discussed below. The first is Robert Terry's Authentic Leadership Approach and the second is Bill George's Authentic Leadership Approach. Both approaches have a unique perspective on how authentic leadership should manifest itself.

1. Robert Terry's Authentic Leadership Approach ("Robert Terry's Authentic Leadership Approach")

Terry's approach is practical and based on guidelines for what authentic leadership should look like. However, Terry's approach is also action-oriented, as it focuses on the actions of the manager and the management team in a concrete situation. The approach assumes that managers must do the right thing. In order to actually do this, this approach offers a frame of reference. Terry argues that in a situation where leadership is required, two questions should be asked: (1) "What is really happening?" and (2) "What are we going to do about it?" These questions can be answered through authentic leadership. replied. An authentic leader knows what is right and is therefore authentic. Leaders must be able to distinguish between authentic leadership and leadership that is not authentic. If leaders do not really understand what is really going on in a situation, they cannot make the right decisions. Terry developed the "Authentic Action Wheel". This cycle is shown on page 209. The wheel consists of six parts: (1) Meaning('Means'),(2) Mission('Mission'),(3) power(“Performance”),(4) Structure("Structure"),(5) Sources('Sources')and (6) exists('Exists').becomes the center of the wheel'fulfilment'called. Correct handling of the wheel consists of two steps: (1) locating the problem on the wheel and (2) strategically choosing a response to solve the problem. In the first step, employees can be asked about their concerns. Based on this, managers at the helm can determine in which of the six areas the organization's problems lie. The wheel is also used to choose the correct response in step 2. The wheel gives advice on what to do. After identifying a problem, the wheel encourages managers to find alternative explanations for the problem and choose a response based on that. For example as administratorspowerIssues you can choose to be aware ofMissionof the organization and the goals of the employees in the organization.

2. Bill George's Authentic Approach to Leadership ("Bill George's Authentic Approach to Leadership")

Terry's "Authentic Leadership Approach" focuses mainly on problem areas, while George focuses on the characteristics of authentic leaders. George explains what these traits are and how individuals can internalize them. George argues that authentic leaders have a real drive to serve others. In addition, they know themselves well and easily run away from their values. According to George, authentic leaders have five characteristics: (1) They understand their purpose('Goal'),(2) They have strong ideas about what is right('Values'),(3) You build trusting relationships with others("Relationships"),(4) They have self-discipline and act in accordance with their values("Self-Discipline")and (5) and they are passionate about their mission('Hertz').According to George, these five dimensions are accompanied by five characteristics:

1. "Heart" as a dimension is associated with the quality of compassion.

2. "Purpose" as a dimension goes together with the characteristic "passion".

3. "Self-discipline" as a dimension goes hand in hand with the characteristic "consistency".

4. "Relationships" as a dimension goes hand in hand with the connectedness characteristic.

5. "Values" as a dimension go hand in hand with the characteristic "Behavior".

According to George, authentic leaders have a clear idea of ​​what their purpose is('Goal')Is. They know the direction to take and are intrinsically motivated to achieve their goals. You are passionate('passionate')and be proud of their work. Authentic leaders also understand their own values('Values')and behaved("behave") thembehave in a certain way based on their values. In addition, they build strong relationships("strong relationships")with others because they can be open to others. They want to say what they want, but they also want to listen to others. Effective leadership occurs when there are high quality interactions between leaders and followers. self discipline(self discipline)is another important factor for authentic leadership. This factor enables managers to achieve their goals because they are focused on the goal to be achieved. Self-discipline enables leaders to remain calm and collectedconsistentstay in their jobs. You could also say that authentic leaders come from compassion('Sympathy')To be sensitive to the feelings of others and to be able to talk about oneself with others. A sense of compassion also enables leaders to help others.

The theoretical approach

The theoretical approach to authentic leadership deals with the basic components of authentic leadership and how these components relate to each other. Research on authentic leadership is relatively new and was created mainly in response to the political instability in America. The September 11 attacks made people increasingly uncertain about leadership. The researchers felt an urge to clarify the meaning of authentic leadership and to provide a theoretical framework for this understanding. Scholars have struggled to clarify authentic leadership and explain its characteristics. This is also because authentic leadership has been defined differently over time. So far, several models have been designed that focus on authentic leadership. Gardner has developed a model in which he argues that authentic leadership is about a leader's and a follower's self-awareness and self-regulation. In their model, Ilies, Morgeson and Nahrgang are more concerned with the influence of authenticity on the happiness and health of leaders and followers. Luthans and Avolio see authentic leadership more as a developmental process.

Parts of an authentic trip to Walumbwa

Walumbwa has developed a model of authentic leadership in which he states that authentic leadership is related to four factors which are described below.

1. self-awareness("Self-Awareness"):This expression is about a leader's personal insight. Self-awareness is a process through which leaders learn about their strengths and weaknesses and reflect on their core values, identity, feelings, motivations and goals. They know who they are and what they stand for and are perceived as authentic by others.

2. internalized moral perspective("internalized moral perspective"):The point here is that leaders adapt their behavior to their own norms and values ​​and not to external factors (such as social pressure). This is also referred to as a process where self-regulation is important. Others perceive a leader with this characteristic as authentic because they behave according to their own norms and values.

3. Balanced processing("balanced treatment"):This process is also self-regulating. This refers to the ability to objectively analyze information and listen to the opinions of others before making a decision. A leader with this quality is described as authentic because he is objective and open to other opinions.

4. relational transparency("relational transparency"):It's about being open and honest and being able to show others your true nature. Again, this is a self-regulatory process as leaders have control over the extent to which they reveal their true nature to others. Relational transparency occurs when a leader shares his feelings and motives honestly with others and shows others both his strengths and weaknesses.

Factors affecting authentic leadership

There are other factors such as (1) psychological skills("psychic abilities"),(2) moral reasoning("moral reasons")and (3) critical life events("critical life events")influence authentic leadership.

1. There are four psychological skills that influence authentic leadership. These are (1) Trust('To trust'),(2) hope, (3) optimism, and (4) resilience('Resistance').biTo trustIt involves the belief that one has the ability to do a particular job well. Leaders with this trait are more motivated to succeed and remain persistent when obstacles arise.Bandis a positive feeling that comes from willpower and goal planning. Aspiring leaders inspire their followers.optimismstands for a cognitive process where someone interprets situations positively and is positive about their own abilities, but also about the things they can achieve. It finally worksresistanceabout the ability to recover when someone experiences unpleasant events. Resilience is when someone can adapt positively to difficult times.

2. moral reasonsrepresents the ability to make ethical decisions about matters that can be interpreted as good or bad. This ability is actually a process that you develop over the years. This ability allows authentic leaders to demonstrate that they stand for justice and want to do the right thing.

3. Critical life eventsare important events that determine a person's life. These events can be positive (for example, an unexpected promotion) or negative (cancer diagnosis). Critical life events often lead to changes in a person's life. When leaders share their life stories, they learn more about themselves and better understand their own role. These events allow individuals to grow and become stronger leaders.

How does the "authentic leadership theory" work?

Both the practical and theoretical approaches describe authentic leadership as a developmental process that develops in leaders over time. Both approaches describe authentic leadership in different ways. Terry and George's practical approaches explain how to become an authentic leader. Terry states that his wheel can answer two questions, namely what exactly is going on and how best to respond to it. George focuses on five specific qualities leaders must possess to be successful: (1) “Purpose,” (2) “Values,” (3) “Relationships,” (4) “Self-discipline,” and (5) “Compassion.” . . . The theoretical approach describes what authentic leadership is and on what factors this form of leadership is based, namely (1) "self-awareness," (2) "internalized moral perspective," (3) "balanced processing," and (4) " relational transparency". .

Strengths of authentic leadership theory

This theory has five strengths, which are discussed below.

1. First, this theory shows that we need reliable leaders in an uncertain world.

2. In addition, this approach shows how people can become authentic leaders if they want to, because the theoretical and practical approaches show the characteristics of an authentic leader.

3. The concept of authentic leadership, like transformational leadership, has a clear moral dimension. Authentic leaders understand that they must make the right decisions for their followers and society.

4. This approach also posits that authentic values ​​and behaviors of leaders can grow and develop over time. Authentic leadership is not a quality that few people possess. Everyone can learn to be authentic. For example, leaders can learn to be more aware of their relationships with others.

5. In conclusion, one can say that authentic leadership can be measured with the ALQ (Authentic Leadership Questionnaire). This is a valid instrument that consists of 16 items and measures the four factors of authentic leadership.

Disadvantages of "Authentic Management Theory"

Four disadvantages of the theory of authentic leadership are discussed below.

1. First, this theory is still very new, which means that the concepts of the theory are not fully matured yet. The validity of the theoretical and practical approaches to authentic leadership has hardly been investigated.

2. In addition, the moral component of authentic leadership has not yet been clearly established. This approach says that leaders are motivated by their values ​​and norms, but exactly how this happens is not clear.

3. Another drawback is that scientists are not sure whether psychological skills should be considered one of the components of authentic leadership. No good reason is given why these skills should be part of authentic leadership. Some researchers believe that the addition of this factor exaggerates the concept of authentic leadership and is therefore difficult to investigate.

4. In conclusion, it can be said that it is not yet completely clear how authentic leadership leads to positive organizational results. Clearly, more research needs to be done here. We do not yet know whether this leadership approach is effective and whether authentic leadership is sufficient to achieve positive organizational outcomes.

Application and measuring equipment

Because this approach is relatively new, there are few strategies that help people become authentic leaders. Despite the lack of research, this approach assumes that people can learn to become authentic leaders. For example, Luthans and Avolio argue in their model that authentic leadership is a process that is constantly evolving. Organizations can take this into account if, for example, they realize that people are moving on in an organization. Those who rise up can be trained to become authentic leaders. This approach also teaches us that leaders should try to be fair, do the right thing, and work toward common goals. Walumbwa has developed the ALQ (Authentic Leadership Questionnaire) to measure authentic leadership. This scientist states that the results of this questionnaire relate to performance, effort and satisfaction, among other things.

Part L: Team Management

teams and management

Today, research into leadership in teams is very popular.ploware groups whose members are interdependent, have common goals, and coordinate their activities to achieve those goals. Examples of teams are project groups and work units. Porter and Beyerlein argue that group research began in the 1920s and 1930s. Back then there was already a focus on cooperation to achieve goals rather than individual efforts to achieve goals. In the 1940s, researchers focused more on group dynamics, and in the 1950s special attention was paid to the functioning of T-groups and the role of leadership in these groups. In the 1960s and 1970s, the focus was mainly on team effectiveness and leadership following the application of a number of interventions. Later, in the 1980s, economic competition from Japan and other countries led to a strong focus on high-quality teams. In the 1990s, attention was also paid to quality, but also to strategies to keep up with other teams. Technological development was also important here. It is also called in this contextteam-based, technology-based"spoken.

Research shows that using teams leads to higher productivity, better use of resources, better decision making and problem solving, higher quality products and services, and more innovation and creativity. However, the teams also seem to have disadvantages. Since 1996, not only team performance has been included as the only variable, but also other team variables such as cognition, planning and trust. It is important to know more about management in teams so that teams do not fail. Some researchers argue that effective management processes are most important to a team's success. Management functions can be occupied not only by the leader of a team, but also by the leader himselfIother team members. This shared leadership is also called"Team Leadership Skills"called.

Team Leadership Model ("Team Leadership Model")

it is tteam management modelstates that a leader has a great influence on the effectiveness of a team. This model also shows how to perceive team problems and how to solve them. This model is on page 291, but all parts of this model are also explained. The premise of this model is that it is the team leader's job to lead a team and increase a team's effectiveness. This is primarily about the manager's role as intermediary, but also the leadership role. The model also shows what actions managers can take to increase team effectiveness.

Effective team leaders have good communication skills and can act when necessary. This affects the effectiveness of the teamMental modela leader about a given situation. This mental model is not only about the team's problems, but also about environmental factors, so that a team can be seen in a larger context. A manager develops a model of the problems a team encounters, but also of the possible solutions. To correctly solve the problem identified by the mental model, a manager must be flexible and able to think of many different skills and actions that can be useful in solving the problem. The leader's behavior must match the complexity of the situation. Effective team leaders can develop good mental models of their team's problems and take appropriate actions (required actions) to solve those problems. The team leader engages in team-based problem solving. He or she tries to achieve this by analyzing the internal and external situation and choosing the right behavior based on that. The right solution depends on the situation itself. In the management model, a distinction is made between (1) management decisions("Management Decisions"),(2) team effectiveness("Team Effectiveness"),(3) actions of external management("External Management Actions")and (4) internal control measures("internal controls").These factors also consist of sub-components which are discussed in detail.

management decisions

Managerial decisions are about the decisions a team leader must make. These decisions are about how and when he or she should intervene in the functioning of the team. A distinction is made between three decisions.

1. Management grant 1:"Should I review the team or take action?"

The first decision a team leader must make is whether to supervise a team or act. McGrath listed a team leader's leadership roles (critical leadership roles). He discovered that leadership has two dimensions: (1) control versus acting("Monitor versus Act")and (2) internal group problems versus external group problems("internal group problems versus external group problems").Managers can identify ("monitor") problems or take immediate action to solve a problem. Managers can also focus on the issues within a group ('internal') and the issues outside the group ('external'). The combination of these factors leads to the following four leadership positions:

The first two leadership roles focus on the team itself: the leader can, for example, identify group mistakes (=1) or decide to solve the identified problems (=2). The third and fourth leadership roles focus on the external influences that affect the team. The leader can analyze the environment to predict external changes (=3) or to prevent team members from being affected by negative changes in the environment (=4). Therefore, a team leader must first make the decision to focus on monitoring or action. Fleishman argues that two phases are important in the first phase: (1) seeking information and (2) structuring. When searching for information('seeking information')It is about the manager seeking information to understand the team's situation. This information must then be analyzed, organized and interpreted("Information Structuring")make a decision. All members of the team can search for information and structure information. Team members can help the manager identify internal problems.

2. Management Decision 2:Should I step in to meet task or relationship needs?

The second management decision a team leader must make is whether to help the team solve relationship-related or task-related problems. In this context, much research has been done on two management functions: (1)taken over ("assignment")i 2)maintenance work maintenance work").Task management is about making decisions, solving problems, making plans and achieving goals. Maintenance management is about creating a positive atmosphere, solving interpersonal problems, building a sense of belonging and meeting the needs of employees. Good team leaders focus on both task and maintenance management. Both forms of leadership are related to the effectiveness of a team and are also related to each other. When there is a sense of unity between team members, they will also do their work better. It is important to build good team relationships before focusing on task issues. This is especially true for virtual team leaders who manage a team using computers. For example, you need to correctly assess the relationship between team members when they receive messages from different team members.

3. Management decision 3:"Should I intervene internally or externally?"

Once a team leader has made the decision to intervene, he or she still needs to decide whether to intervene internally or externally. This can be detected by a managerlevel of Team processto obtain. For example, a manager may wonder if there are internal conflicts between team members. A manager can also question whether the goals are clear. It may also be that there is little support from the environment to support the team members. Based on the answers to such questions, a manager can decide whether it is better to intervene internally or externally.

management actions

Management actions can be internal (task-related/relationship-related) or external (environment-related). Teams with clear goals and effective decision-making will do their work better. A sense of togetherness is created in teams that handle conflict well and work well together. Even teams that are tied to their environment will be more productive than teams that are not. The leader must decide for himself how to behave in order to handle the team's situation properly("appropriate role or ability").Therefore, to be an effective leader, a team leader must take the actions required in a given situation. Gouran and Hirokawa argue that leaders must analyze what is preventing a team from achieving desired goals. Based on this analysis, managers must choose the right measures. For example, if there is a relationship problem, a leader can choose to resolve conflicts between members. Solutions to task, relational, and environmental problems are discussed below.

1. Internal task management measures

When a manager faces internal work problems, he can take the following actions:

1. Aim for the target ('goal focus', e.g. goal clarification).

2. structure ("Structure for results", planning, organizing, delegating and clarifying roles).

3. Facilitation of decision-making (information, monitoring, coordination and dissemination).

4. Training of team members in task competencies ('Education', training and development).

5. maintain expertise ('Standardindstilling', analyzing individual performance and confronting followers with poor performance).

2. Measures for internal relational management

In case of internal relationship problems, a manager can take the following measures:

1. Coaching team members in interpersonal skills 'Coaching'.

2. cooperation (being involved).

3. Handling conflicts and power problems ("Managing Conflicts and Power Issues",avoid confrontations, challenging ideas).

4. ensure involvement ('Build commitment and esprit de corps”, optimistic, social, rewarding and innovative).

5. Responding to the individual needs of team members (providing trust and support).

6. Be a role model in ethics and morality (be fair, consistent and normative).

3. External environmental control.

A manager can take the following actions when there are external environmental problems:

1. Build networks and form alliances in the area (gather information and become more influential).

2. Representation of the team towards the environment ("Team advocacy and representation towards the environment").

3. Request support, resources and recognition from an organization's senior departments for the team ("negotiate upwards to secure the necessary resources").

4. Protect team members from environmental distractions.

5. Leverage environmental indicators of team effectiveness (eg assessments and surveys).

6. Share relevant information about the environment with team members.

Team management is very complex. There are no simpler recipes for team success. What is important is that the leader does what is necessary to meet the unmet needs of the team members.

Team Effectiveness ("Team Effectiveness")

Team effectiveness is about two factors: (1) performance (task completion) and (2) development (team retention). team performance("Teampræstation")stands for the quality of decision-making, the ability to implement decisions, the results of teamwork in terms of solved problems and the work of team members, as well as the quality of leadership in the team.("Team Development")represents team members' level of connectedness and team members' ability to meet their own needs while effectively collaborating with other team members. Hackman and Walton argue that effective groups have a clear direction and can provide their members with structure, context, coaching, and resources. Larson and LaFasto indicate that eight factors are related to team performance. These factors are discussed below.

1. A clear goal("clear, uplifting purpose"):Team goals must be clear so that it is visible whether the desired goals have ultimately been achieved. Sometimes teams don't perform well because the goals aren't clear. It is also important that the goals are stimulating, so that all members must do their part to reach the set goals.

2. A results-oriented structure("result-oriented structure"):Teams must find the best structure to achieve their goals. For example, in management teams, power and influence are important, while for other teams, for example, plans and ideas are more important. It is important that trust is reflected in the structure of a team. It is also important that the individual team member's role is clear and that there is good communication.

3. Competent team members(“Eligible Team Members”):It is important that teams consist of enough people and that everyone has the competence to achieve the desired goals. Team members must receive adequate education and training to become and remain competent. It is also important that team members are interpersonally competent, have good communication skills and problem solving skills.

4. Shared commitment("Uniform Commitment"):All team members must be committed to the team and willing to work together to achieve the goals.

5. An atmosphere of collaboration("collaborative climate"):It is very important for the effectiveness of a team that the team members can work well together. Team members must focus on the problem, listen to each other, understand each other and trust each other. This is necessary because it is important in the team that individual actions are combined into a group action. Each team member's unique role contributes to a group action.

6. standards of excellence("Standards of Excellence"):Effective group norms are important for group functioning. It is important that the organization in which a team operates has specific performance requirements that encourage team members to do their best. These requirements must be clear and specific. A team leader can help by clarifying their expectations and evaluating followers' performance.

7. External support and recognition("External Support and Acknowledgment"):It often happens that teams are given challenging tasks but do not get support from the organization to carry out these tasks properly. A team leader must identify the structures and systems necessary for a team to be effective. It is important that the team has the necessary resources (money, material and supplies). It is also important that the teams are rewarded for their achievements.

8. principled leadership("principle management"):Effective team management is related to team effectiveness. Zaccaro argues that leadership affects four team processes: (1) cognition, (2) motivation, (3) commitment, and (4) coordination. On a cognitive level, a leader helps team members understand the problems. On a motivational level, a leader helps the team come together and sets high standards for their own performance. In addition, a leader influences affection within a group; He or she can ensure that team members handle stressful events well. Finally, a leader influences the coordination in the team. A leader can map members' skills to specific roles, provide feedback, and adapt to changes in the environment. LaFasto and Larson found that team leaders exhibit the following behaviors: (1) they keep the team focused on the goal, (2) they foster an atmosphere of cooperation, (3) they build trust between people, (4) they have technical understanding, (5) they prioritize, and (6) they drive performance.

Effective leaders are committed to the team's goals and provide members with opportunities to develop talent. The effectiveness of a team is increased by staying focused on the goal and creating a collaborative climate. It is very useful for managers to get feedback on past behavior. This allows both the manager and the team to grow in the future.

How does the team management model work?

Team leaders can use the team management model to make decisions about the current state of their team and to think about the actions they need to take to make the team work better. The model provides a picture of what the team members' needs are and how the right actions should be taken. Based on the model, an administrator can decide whether to monitor (monitor) or take action (measured). If the team is functioning well, there is no need to intervene. If not, the team leader must decide whether to intervene internally or externally. The manager can intervene in three types of problems: (1) an internal relationship problem, (2) an internal task problemI(3) an external environmental problem.It is also possible that a team leader decides to intervene in all three areas. The team management model enables team leaders to compare the way their own team works with how teams work. If there are many differences between them, the manager can make changes.

Strengths of the team management model

Four strengths of the management model are discussed below.

1. An advantage of this model is that it places a team's function in an environmental context. In addition, team leaders can use this model to identify and solve problems within their team.

2. This model also ensures that team leaders can influence and maintain team effectiveness, especially when effectiveness is insufficient and needs to be improved. The model integrates a number of complex factors that can ensure that someone can act effectively as a team leader.

3. In addition, this model also addresses the changing role of team leaders and team members. The model does not focus on the power of a leader, but on the functions of leadership. Each team member can use leadership skills to determine team effectiveness.

4. Finally, this model can contribute to the correct selection of team leaders. When choosing a team leader, it is wise to choose someone who is open, objective, analytical and a good listener. A team leader must also have the necessary skills to act. This includes negotiation, conflict resolution and problem solving.

Disadvantages of the team management model

The team management model has four shortcomings. These negatives are listed below.

1. The first flaw is that this model is not yet fully supported by research and has not been fully tested. For example, it is not clear to what extent factors from the team management model apply to teams that are new, long-standing, or declining in performance. Research should also focus on rewarding the team as a whole rather than individual team members.

2. An advantage of the model is that it consists of so many factors, but it is also a disadvantage. This makes the model very complex. The model cannot provide easy answers to difficult decisions that a team leader must make. The team management model is not only very complex, but also does not answer specific situations that a team leader may face. For example, what should a team leader do if a team member cries or if team members attack each other? The model assumes that team leaders know everything about interpersonal communication, decision-making and conflict resolution.

3. In conclusion, this model says that leadership can be trained, but it is not clear how. Because there are so many leadership skills, it is not clear which skill should be trained first.

Application and measuring equipment

The team management model can be used in a number of ways to improve team effectiveness. Managers can also use this model to think about the decisions they have to make. For example, if a team is not functioning properly, the leader may decide to manage or act. It is especially important for a team leader to use the necessary skills to solve a specific problem. The team leader can learn more about the team's effectiveness through a survey. Research shows that team leaders often overestimate their own effectiveness and have a better self-image than team members. Together with the leader, the team can make plans to solve the team's most important problems. Various measuring instruments have been used to assess the effectiveness of a team. Larson and LaFasto designed the Team Excellence study. This consists of 40 items that measure the eight factors of team effectiveness. They also developed the Collaborative Team Leader Questionnaire, where the team leader himself is central. Team members must complete this questionnaire. Your scores are then added together to get an overall picture of how the team feels about the team manager.

Part M: The psychodynamic approach

personality

The psychodynamic perspective looks at leadership in different ways. No general theory or specific model has been developed for this. Personality is a key concept for this approach. Personality is defined as a pattern of thinking, feeling or acting in relation to the environment and in relation to other people. A personality is characterized by qualities and characteristics such as shyness, intelligence, independence and spontaneity. Various measuring instruments have been developed to measure personality. One such gauge is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. This approach differs from the "attribute approach" or the "skill approach". The psychodynamic approach describes different personality types and tries to demonstrate, based on evidence, that certain personality types are better suited to leadership than others. According to this approach, it is important for a leader to become aware of his own personality type and the personalities of his followers. The psychodynamic approach also considers family life to be important. Early on we are confronted with authority and leadership. When we are young, we see our parents as leaders. We believe their behavior is representative of leadership. Some people do not like authority during puberty, while others like authority. The psychodynamic approach does not talk about good or bad personality traits. However, it seems that people with certain personality types are better at handling certain functions or situations. This approach also does not imply that there must be a correlation between a leader's personality type and a follower's personality type for an effective work situation. The approach states that follower responses are to some extent predictable. Some followers do not take well to authority, and other followers will be quite happy with the presence of a leader. The psychodynamic approach therefore focuses on the personalities of both leaders and followers and on the relationship between these individuals.

Principles of the psychodynamic perspective

The psychodynamic perspective states that personality cannot be changed. It would be important to accept one's own personality and understand how one's personality affects others. This perspective also assumes that people have motives and feelings of which they themselves are not aware. Thus, an individual's behavior would not only consist of observable actions, but would also have to do with previous emotional experiences in life. Freud developed the psychodynamic perspective and believes that psychological problems can be solved through conversation. There is not much evidence for classic Freudian psychoanalysis today, while there is e.g. are Jung's ideas. This scientist also adopted the psychodynamic perspective, but had different ideas than Freud.Psychohistory ("Psychohistory")is a branch of the psychodynamic approach. For example, scientists try to explain Hitler's behavior using psychohistory. Historical sources about Hitler are used.

Eric Berne and Transactional Analysis

Eric Berne developed a psychodynamic model called Transactional Analysis (TA). According to Berne, TA is a unified system of individual and social psychiatry. This means that TA is not only focused on the individual, but also on the interaction between the individual and other people. TA has not yet been directly applied to leadership, but this model has some interesting assumptions that may be important for the interaction between a leader and a follower. At the core of TA is the ego state. This term represents a coherent concept of feelings and behavior patterns. TA is actually a way of connecting emotions and experiences with people's behavior. TA has three ego states: (1) the parent, (2) the adult, and (3) the child.

1. When a person behaves like his parents, he is in the state of the parental ego.

2. When a person acts like a child, they have a child ego state.

3. The "adult ego state" occurs when a person engages in "reality testing." This means that he or she is realistic.

People are constantly changing their ego status. When we measure a person's current ego state, we perform a structural analysis. Parent status and child status can also be broken down further. Parental status (the parent's ego state) can be dominant or nurturing, and the child's status can be free or adjusted. Adaptive child status is when someone can meet the needs of others. Free child status ("free child"/"rebellious child") is when someone acts as if he or she is unrestrained and unsocialized. Ego status is not the same as personality. People change their ego status depending on the situation they are in, the person they are talking to, and the availability of ego status. An egogram can be used to indicate how someone performs under five ego states, namely (1) CP ("critical parent"), (2) NP ("caring parent"), (3) A ("mature"), (4). ) FC ("Free Child") and (5) AC ("Adapted Child").

The ego state

Unlike structural analysis, TA occurs when two people interact and, for example, one person has the status of parent and the other has the status of child. There is an additional transaction (see Figure 2.2 on page 260) when one person has the status of parent and the other has the status of child. This then fits exactly together and is then considered complementary. A crossed transaction occurs when two people's ego states are not parallel (see Figure 2-3 on page 276). An example is a leader with adult status and a follower with free child status who do not tolerate the leader's authority well. If there was a complementary transaction, the mature status of the leader would also imply the mature status of the follower, which is not the case in this case because the follower does not want to know anything about the leader. Looking at the relationship between a leader and a follower, the following complementary transactions are possible between a leader and a follower:

1. Parent  child

2. Adults  Adults

3. child  parents

In the third situation, a child is the leader and the follower is the parent. It is very possible, for example, when a leader throws tantrums and behaves like a child. Back-to-back agreements between a leader and a follower create problematic situations. If a leader has adult status and tells him what to do, and the follower responds with child status by asking what to do, then a leader must assume parent status by calling the "child" guides. TA really only focuses on cross-transactions and other unhealthy aspects of human interaction. Effective leadership can be achieved when two people are of adult status.

Freud and personality types

Freud mainly tried to explain forms of psychopathology, but he also wrote about personality. Freud viewed personality as a general way in which people interact with the world. In humans, there would be a kind of core personality that is innate and based on instinct. Freud spoke of three types of personality: (1) erotic, (2) obsessive, and (3) narcissistic. Fromm added a fourth personality: (4) Marketing. These personality types are discussed below.

1. People who love and want to be loved have oneerotic personality type. They want to be liked, accepted and respected. They talk to others and enjoy a family atmosphere in the workplace. They also want to know the background of the people they work with. People with this personality love to please others and have a very dependent attitude.

2. people with oneobsessive personalitytry to meet the demands of others, follow the rules and follow them. People with this personality mainly try to please others and like order and stability. You have a strong sense of what is right and strive to become more competent and knowledgeable. They can also be aggressive and commanding.

3. someone with onenarcissistic personalitydo not want to be led like the other three personality types. People with this personality type usually decide for themselves what is right and how to behave. Narcissistic people do not want to grow and praise themselves and their achievements. Also, people with such a personality have a good sense of humor and a clear idea of ​​what to do without having to pay attention to what other people think.

4. people with oneMarketing personalitywant to adapt and adapt to the situation they find themselves in. They want to grow (emotionally), develop further and become more competent. These people also like to work together.

Narcissistic leaders

Maccoby discovered that each personality type can be divided into a productive and an unproductive type. For example, some narcissists may not be productive while others are. Fromm explained that the productive type of each personality type is associated with five traits: (1) free and independent, (2) acts based on logic, (3) is (pro)active, (4) understands his own situation and ( 5 ) has a purpose in life. Maccoby added endurance to that list. Unproductive people are characterized by (1) unwillingness to take risks, (2) being irrational, (3) being reactive, (4) being superficial, (5) being aimless, and (5) not being committed. Maccoby argued that good leaders are often prolific narcissists. He argued that followers need to understand the personality of their narcissistic leader, as such a leader cannot meet all their needs. Followers must also have a lot of knowledge about their own field, but not compete with the leader on the basis of this knowledge. Furthermore, if a follower knows his own personality well and supports the leader, the leader is more likely to see him or her as a partner. Also, a follower is not supposed to mainly talk to the narcissistic leader about his own ideas, the narcissist is not particularly keen on that. Finally, supporters must protect the image of the prolific narcissist. In an organization where chaos reigns and a clear vision of the future is desired, there is often a need for a narcissistic leader. A narcissistic leader dares to take risks and implement change. An erotic personality would be particularly useful for companies that offer services, while an obsessive personality would be good for a company that wants to make products in a consistent and predictable way. In companies that mainly need to collaborate with other organizations, a marketing assistant is useful.

Social character: a shift in management perspective

Maccoby saw leadership primarily in relation to the psyche of followers. social character("social character")is a personality type that arises from the emotional attitudes and values ​​that people share in a given context. A specific social character emerges within a culture or social class. Maccoby argues that a change in social character has occurred because today's economy is based more on knowledge ("interactive social character") than industry ("bureaucratic"). The bureaucratic social character was particularly important when formal, hierarchical organizations were involved. Managers and leaders set goals, schedules and a budget. The followers had to do what the leaders no doubt expected of them. The bureaucratic social character mainly strives for stability, hierarchy, loyalty and perfection. However, modern organizations must be able to handle the global market and adapt to technological change. The social structure of the bureaucratic social character was mainly associated with traditional family values. The father was aloof and authoritarian and made sure there was bread on the table. The woman mainly took care of the children. As individuals began to work their way out of such a social structure, they also expected a paternalistic leader (like the father figure at home). Due to social and cultural changes, the family structure is different today. The idea of ​​an authoritarian father and a caring mother no longer exists. The interactive social nature focuses more on improvement than stability and does not promote a hierarchical relationship between a leader and a follower. It is also considered normal these days to innovate and experiment with new ideas. The consequence of this change in social character is that people no longer see themselves as followers, but as people with whom a leader works.

Young people and personality types

Jung argued that human behavior is predictable and understandable, and that people prefer certain ways of thinking and feeling. He believed that four dimensions should be considered in understanding a person's personality: (1) what drives someone (internally or externally), (2) how someone gathers information (in a precise or intuitive way), (3) how someone makes decisions (rational) or subjective and personal) and (4) whether one is primarily planning and organized or spontaneous and impulsive. Based on these dimensions, Jung made a categorization of personality types, which is described below.

1. Extraversion vs. introversion

Does someone get their energy mainly from internal or external events? Extroverts mainly look outwards, while introverts mainly look inwards. Extroverts talk a lot and enjoy interacting with other people. An introvert focuses mainly on his own thoughts and does not need outside stimulation. Introverts are good listeners and enjoy reading and watching informative television programs. They do not like constant contact. Kroeger and Theusen argue that most people are extroverted and that some people are more extroverted than others.

2. Perception versus intuition ("Sind versus intuition")

Is someone trying to collect targeted information? It's about the way people store information. Humans, also known as 'sensors', rely heavily on their senses to store information from the environment. They are very detail-oriented and pay attention to what they smell, hear, feel, taste and see. They areExactlyIspot on.Other people usually react intuitively. They are mostly theoretical and conceptual and bored with everyday experiences. You are creative and like to fantasize about the future. They look for possibilities and connections and use a theoretical frame of reference to understand data. They use expressions like'In'i 'As far as I know'tit.

3. thinking versus feeling

Does a person make decisions based primarily on reason or emotion? Thinkers mainly use a lot of logic and objectivity and are analytical. They often do not seem so receptive to others. Emotions are often subjective and place great importance on the feelings of others. They tend to bond more with people in the workplace and are often seen as extroverts. Research shows that men generally think, while women generally feel.

4. Judging vs Perceiving (judging vs perceiving)

Do people want to live properly or live spontaneously? Reviewers love schedules, structure and plans. They are quite confident in their decisions. Observers are often more flexible and flexible and less concerned about deadlines than evaluators.

The above categorization is associated with a total of 16 personality types, as there are many possible combinations of these four dimensions. All these types influence a leader's behavior. Some personality types are primarily associated with conflict and frustration, while other personality types are not necessarily so.

write and lead

Several attempts have been made to describe leadership in terms of psychological differences. Kroeger and Theusen argue that leadership is associated with both personal and organizational power. They associated the eight personalities discussed above (extrovert, introvert, thinker, feeler, judge, observer, sensor, and tutor) with leadership strengths and weaknesses. For a graph, see page 287. A survey by these scientists shows that most people prefer thinkers and judges as leaders. Judges and thinkers are often analytical, rational and disinterested. Apparently we prefer these qualities.

Sixteen personality types and leadership

As previously mentioned, Jung's four personality dimensions mentioned above can be summarized into 16 personality types. These personality types are shown schematically on page 288. The personality types you think in('ThinkT)is often seen as a characteristic of leadership. Thinkers are efficient, competitive, productive, effective, authoritative and knowledgeable.

Dealing with followers

Sometimes different personality types between followers and leaders can cause problems. For example, a leader can be very outgoing and talk a lot, while a follower can be introverted and need time to think and react. Because this follower is not as quick to respond to the leader, the leader may think he or she agrees with what is being said, while the follower is thinking as well. So when the leader talks about things that can be done, he may mistakenly think that the follower is okay with it. Subsequently, the leader may become frustrated when he or she sees that the follower has not done what was expected of him or her. In such a case, it makes sense to take some time off to let the introvert think about what is really going on. Another example would be when both leader and follower can be called "instructors". Then both are interested in the next step and want to plan the next project. Both are not theoretically oriented in their work, but mainly practice oriented. This can create uncomfortable situations and the leader must keep him or her, but also the follower, focused on the present.

How does the psychodynamic approach work?

The main goal of the psychodynamic approach is to make managers more aware of their own personality type. This can be done, for example, using the TA model, where people have to describe their current ego states. In organizations that use the psychodynamic approach, both the behavior of the leader and the behavior of the follower are taken into account. It is important that people understand the differences between them and the people they have to work with. In this way, they can be more tolerant of each other.

Strengths of the psychodynamic perspective

This approach has four strengths, which are described below.

1. The main advantage is that this perspective says that the relationship between a leader and a follower must be analyzed. The psychodynamic approach assumes that both the leader and the follower have a personality type (or ego status) of which they are hardly aware.

2. Another plus is that this approach has a universal character. For example, both Jung and Freud tried to explain human nature in terms of Greek myths.

3. Another strength is that the psychodynamic approach says that a leader must become aware of his own personality. For example, a leader can write and speak about interacting with followers and helping them better understand their own reactions to their followers' behavior. A leader can also better understand why her followers behave in a certain way towards her.

4. In conclusion, the psychodynamic perspective rejects manipulative management techniques. According to this approach, effective leadership goes hand in hand with self-confidence and a tolerant attitude towards the behavior of others.

Disadvantages of the psychodynamic perspective

The disadvantages of the psychodynamic perspective are discussed below.

1. A disadvantage is that this perspective is mainly based on clinical observation and treatment of people with serious problems. This is especially true for the TA model. Furthermore, the TA model places little emphasis on maturity.

2. In addition, the MBTI ("Myers-Briggs Type Indicator") was developed by scientists who were not very professional. Therefore, there may be reliability and validity issues with this test.

3. There is no single, standardized method for determining ego states based on the TA model. Everyone must determine their own ego status based on the written literature.

4. Another limitation is that the psychodynamic perspective focuses primarily on the personalities of the leader and follower rather than organizational factors. These factors can also have a major impact on organizational culture.

5. In addition, many people find that the psychodynamic approach is not reliable at all. Some people do not believe at all that people have emotional reactions to the behavior of leaders, followers and colleagues due to unconscious personality factors.

6. A final point is that this perspective cannot be used for training as it is not about skills that can be learned or techniques for motivating followers.
   

Measuring equipment

The MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) shows whether people prefer extroversion or introversion, judgment or perception, thinking or feeling, and perception or intuition.

Part N: Women and Leadership

Women

In the past, scientists often saw women as inferior to men, but luckily people think differently these days. Some books even claim that women make better leaders. Until the 1970s, little research was done on the relationship between gender and leadership. One of the reasons for this is that the researchers at the time were predominantly men, and there were methodological problems. As more and more women assumed leadership roles, attention to the relationship between gender and leadership grew. We now know that women can be effective leaders, for example in politics. In particular, we want to know whether men and women lead differently and whether this leads to differences in effectiveness. We also wonder why there are still too few women in leadership positions. All these questions are addressed in this chapter. Finally, tips are also given to increase the proportion of women in leadership positions.

gender and leadership styles

As more and more women hold leadership positions today, researchers wonder if they use different leadership styles than men. Some researchers argue that this is indeed the case, while others believe that gender has little to do with leadership styles and leadership effectiveness. Previous studies mainly distinguished four types of leadership styles: (1) interpersonal, (2) task-oriented, (3) democratic, and (4) autocratic. Contrary to popular belief, Eagly and Johnson did not find that women were more interpersonal than men than task oriented. They have been shown to lead more democratically than men. The same results were found in another study. In addition, studies show that women who lead in a masculine (e.g. autocratic) manner are rated more poorly when occupying a typically male position. In this context, just think of an athlete's coach. In the early 1980s, researchers began researching transformative leadership based on Bass's work. Research has shown that the four components of transformative leadership ("idealized influence", "inspirational motivation", "intellectual stimulation" and "individualized leadership"), but also the "contingent reward" component, are positively associated with leadership effectiveness. Research shows that women are more transformative than men and that women also reward their achievements more. However, women who use transformative leadership are also rated worse by others than men who use the same leadership style.

Gender and the effectiveness of leadership

Researchers have also looked specifically at leadership effectiveness in men and women. Research shows that men and women are equally effective leaders, but there is a difference between men and women. Men and women are more effective in gendered leadership roles. Women are therefore less effective in male leadership positions, such as when working in the military. Women appear to be even more effective leaders than men when they adopt a 'feminine' position. In this context, just think about being a teacher or working for the government. This is probably because women have better communication skills than men. It also appears that women are less effective leaders if they are mainly supervised by men or if they are mainly judged by men. In summary, there are small differences in leadership styles between men and women, and women are less effective when faced with a male rather than a female leadership role. In addition, women are more likely to use a democratic leadership style, undertake more transformative leadership, and be more giving than men.

Leadership Labyrinth ("Leadership Labyrinth")

Studies show that women are more likely than men to have an education, but still underperform in large organizations and are relatively underrepresented in politics. Additionally, black women in America seem to be even less involved in politics than white women. It also appears that only a small percentage (6%) of army personnel are women. The barrier that prevents women from reaching senior positions is known as the "glass ceiling". Even in "female" jobs, the glass ceiling is clearly in place. Eagly and Carli argue that the glass ceiling metaphor is flawed. When it comes to the glass ceiling, it is often thought that all women have equal opportunities in lower positions, but that all women ultimately face an invisible glass ceiling if they want to move up the ranks. For that reason, Eagly and Carli prefer to talk about a management labyrinth ("leadership labyrinth"), because women also face all kinds of challenges in lower positions and not only at the top.

remove barriers

The leadership gap means that women are overrepresented in lower-level jobs and positions where they have little authority, while men are not. The management labyrinth affects not only women, but also ethnic minorities, for example, who also find it more difficult to reach the top. It is important to remove the barriers that prevent these groups from reaching the top for various reasons. These reasons are listed below.

1. First, removing barriers ensures that men and women have equal opportunities and opportunities to hold leadership positions in all areas of work.

2. Companies can also more easily find the best candidate for a leadership position if they have more people (including women) to choose from.

3. In addition, companies where women hold management positions will be more representative of the population.

4. It also appears that diversity within the group leads to increased group productivity. It is therefore important that women and men work together to achieve the goals.

5. Furthermore, it seems that the more women at the top of a company, the greater the financial success.

Understanding the Maze

There are three reasons why women are underrepresented in leadership positions. The first statement is mainly about human capital, the second about gender differences and the last statement is mainly about prejudice and discrimination against women managers. All three statements are explained below.

1. differences in human capital

Human capital includes education level, work experience, development opportunities and home-work conflicts. According to the first explanation, women have less human capital than men. For example, they are less educated than men and have less work experience. However, research shows that women graduate more often than men. Almost as many women as men graduate from law school, but less than 20% of women appear to become partners in law firms. However, it appears that women have less work experience than men. This is probably because women are expected to take care of their children. It is not yet clear whether women have less work experience than men because they leave the labor market sooner. However, it appears that women often stop working for family reasons. In addition, women with children work less than women without children, while men with children work more than men without children. In particular, women who cannot afford a babysitter cannot continue to work with children. It also appears that women with the same occupational status as their husbands still do more housework and care for the children. They still feel that their husbands contribute enough and are even a little unsure of their own household performance. Because of these conflicts between home and work, some women choose never to marry or have children. Other women continue to work, but often call in sick or start working part-time. Women who give up their careers eventually find it difficult to find a job again and often end up at a worse level than before. Some scientists argue that women do not want to choose leadership positions themselves and prefer other jobs. However, research has shown this claim to be false. It also appears that women in companies have fewer development opportunities than men. This may be due to prejudice, as women are also looked after less well, receive less formal education and have fewer mentoring relationships. It also appears that women are more likely to work in jobs that are less visible and involve less responsibility. In short, women are more often put on a glass cliff than men. This means that women in particular are given management roles that involve a lot of risk and criticism.

2. Sexual differences

Another explanation for women being underrepresented in leadership positions is that men and women are simply different. According to this statement, women have a different leadership style than men. It has already been explained that differences in leadership styles do not necessarily disadvantage women and that a female leadership style can also have advantages. Another idea is that women would be less engaged in their work and less motivated. In fact, research shows that they are no less engaged and motivated than men. However, it seems that women themselves do less to reach leadership positions. They consider informal leadership roles more important than formal leadership roles. expressions like'Moderator'von'Organizer'Women like it more than the term'Führer'.Research shows that women are less likely to be group leaders than men, but more often social mediators. Women who promote themselves are rated worse than men who promote themselves. Women may not seek leadership positions because they know they will be judged on their ambitions. Another idea is that men have more personality traits for effective leadership than women. However, we know that leadership is about a mix of 'feminine' and 'masculine' qualities, where social skills as well as intelligence are important. Research shows that it is easier for men to ask for what they want than for women. It also appears that women negotiate less than men. However, negotiation is very important as it can create more options and opportunities.

3. prejudice and discrimination

Another explanation for the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions is the stereotypical expectation that women should primarily be caretakers and men primarily activists. Stereotypes are cognitive rules of thumb that influence how people process information about groups and group members. People attribute characteristics to groups or individual group members so that they no longer perceive difference in groups. Stereotypes can be useful if they are based on truth, but they can also be unpleasant if they are not. Gender stereotypes are often difficult to change. For example, we believe that men are assertive and independent, while we believe that women are particularly empathetic, warm, supportive and caring. Nor are we sympathetic to people who behave in ways inconsistent with stereotypes. An example is a woman who is very authoritarian (and therefore masculine). Gender stereotypes are often activated automatically and lead to misjudgments. We often associate leadership with stereotypically masculine qualities, and when a woman shares these qualities, we judge her negatively for not being feminine enough. The fact that there are prejudices about women's performance in leadership positions explains why female leaders are rated worse than male leaders, that it is more difficult for women to get leadership positions, and that it is more difficult for women to be perceived as effective leaders. If a company does not hire female managers because women are not competent enough, this eventually leads to 'homosocial reproduction', whereby a group increasingly believes in its own image. It also seems that women who have made it in a male-dominated career field are often under a lot of pressure. Research shows that women can respond to gender leadership stereotypes in two ways: (1) they can act in accordance with the stereotype, and (2) they can resist the stereotype by expressing themselves in ways that are inconsistent with the stereotype. Women often follow mild stereotypes but resist more extreme stereotypes. It also appears that women who are insecure about their leadership skills are more likely to conform to gender stereotypes than women who are confident about their leadership skills.

Navigate the maze

The number of women who effectively master the labyrinth is increasing. women rise. You can even see that in politics. The fact that more and more women are reaching the top is because organizations are changing internally. A different corporate culture has begun to assert itself, which describes leadership as less masculine. More and more companies are also emphasizing diversity. It also seems that women and men are becoming more and more equally involved in raising children. The structural role definition approach states that family members and colleagues should discuss role expectations at home and at work. For example, women may share the household with more family members and advocate for more childcare opportunities in the workplace. The leadership gap can thus be partially closed by giving women the opportunity to negotiate their home and work situation. Research shows that women often think of something masculine when negotiating. So it is better to encourage them to "ask questions" rather than negotiate. Leadership is difficult for women because they always have to deal with a double standard: on the one hand they must be female, but on the other hand they must also be competent "male" leaders. It is not possible to fulfill both conditions at the same time. Women may try to combine "feminine" qualities such as warmth and kindness with "masculine" qualities such as assertiveness. Transformational leadership also seems to work well for women, especially since this type of leadership is not necessarily seen as masculine. Support and care are important in transformative leadership. Research shows that the perceived gap between a leadership role and female gender roles is gradually disappearing. It also seems that women are becoming more confident and appreciate power without losing their femininity.

Strengths in the gender approach

The strengths of the gender approach are explained below.

1. First of all, it makes sense to take gender as a starting point when analyzing leadership, as a combination of gender and leadership can affect the effectiveness of leadership. Today, we describe leadership less in relation to masculinity. We also find transformative and democratic leadership more important. It is important to define leadership in a way that encourages people to aspire to leadership positions, rather than avoiding certain positions because they are not gender appropriate.

2. This approach is also about exploring barriers that hinder women but are not clearly visible. Think about stereotypes. Such unconscious processes greatly influence the perception and evaluation of women.

3. By understanding more parts of the leadership maze, we can develop more resources to address gender inequality in leadership positions. This approach recognizes that there is a power imbalance between men and women and that this difference must be analyzed before action can be taken to address this inequality.

Disadvantages of the gender approach

The weaknesses of the gender approach are listed below.

1. Research on gender and leadership could be grouped under a more general topic, namely diversity and leadership. Other demographic variables may also be considered in this context. For example, it would be an idea to also look at the connection between ethnicity and management, but unfortunately there is still far too little research into this. Women and ethnic minorities face similar, but very different, problems in the labor market. Researchers should pay more attention to the role of ethnicity. For example, you can also look at the role between ethnicity and gender.

2. Furthermore, it can be said that most studies on gender and leadership have been carried out in Western countries. We still know little about the relationship between gender and leadership in other countries and what role cultural values ​​play in this. It is therefore important to remember that the results of Western studies cannot be extrapolated to other cultures.

3. In conclusion, the management gap can only be closed if, in addition to the working environment, we also look at women's home environment and try to create changes there.

Application and measuring equipment

Research shows that the leadership gap is narrowing. It is important that the difficulties women have in climbing to the top are recognised. From this, ways can be developed to combat gender inequality in leadership positions. The leadership maze has many obstacles and it is necessary to make changes at all possible organizational and social levels. It also appears that women often want to take on transformative leadership themselves. It is also important that women learn negotiation techniques to better adapt to their work and personal situations. The IAT (Illicit Association Test) measures the automatic associations people make between pictures and words by analyzing reaction times. It makes it possible to find out what gender stereotype associations people make.

Part O: Culture and management

cultural

This chapter is about the relationship between culture and management. As in the previous chapter, this is not a specific theory, but a set of scientific ideas about the influence of culture on leadership. Globalization has been taking place since the Second World War. This term means that people are becoming more and more dependent on each other for things like trade, telecommunications and cultural exchange. Due to increasing globalization, there are also more multinational companies today, and choosing the right managers for these companies that have offices in several countries remains a challenge. Globalization has taught us the importance of understanding how cultural differences affect management performance. It is also important that managers become more aware of cultural differences. Adler and Bartholomew argue that leaders must possess five intercultural competencies: (1) they must understand political and cultural environments, (2) they must understand the tastes, tendencies, and perspectives of other cultures, (3) they must be able to that . work simultaneously with people from different cultural backgrounds, (4) they must be able to adapt to life in other cultures, and (5) they must learn to communicate with people from other cultures from a sense of equality and not from a sense of superiority . Ting-Toomey also argues that it is important for leaders to be able to communicate in a way that allows them to clarify their own vision in a diverse organization. This chapter discusses the influence of culture on leadership. Culture is defined and then cultural dimensions are discussed. It also explains that the view of leadership differs between cultures and that some leadership qualities are universally encouraged while other leadership qualities are universally rejected.

The definition of culture

Of the expression'culture'is difficult to define because the concept is very abstract. The book's authors argue that culture is about learned beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols and traditions shared by a group of people. The fact that these characteristics are shared is of crucial importance in this context. Culture is dynamic and is passed on to others. Basically, culture is a way of life. ByMulticulturalismoccurs when an approach focuses on multiple cultures, such as Asian, American, and European cultures.MulticulturalismThey can also be subcultures formed based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation or age.diversityrepresents the existence of different cultures or ethnicities within a group or organization.

related concepts

Two important concepts are related to culture. These concepts are (1) ethnocentrism and (2) prejudice. These terms are explained below.

1. ethnocentrism

ethnocentrismrepresents the tendency of individuals to take their own (ethnic or cultural) group as the starting point for their view of others in the world. People consider their own beliefs, attitudes and values ​​more important than people from other groups. Ethnocentrism stands for the idea that one's own culture is better than the culture of others. This can lead to others' perspectives not being taken seriously. Ethnocentrism is a universal phenomenon and we are all ethnocentric to some degree. In fact, we use ethnocentrism as a frame of reference to judge other cultures subjectively and critically. For example, some Americans believe that the US democratic system is superior to the systems of government in other countries. They do not understand that other cultures are complex and that it is not so easy to make a statement about it. Ethnocentrism is a major obstacle to effective leadership because it prevents people from understanding the perspectives of others. For example, if someone grew up in an individualistic culture, he or she cannot understand why other cultures are collectivist. Good leaders must recognize their own ethnocentrism as well as that of others. They are comfortable with it and understand when to try to overcome their ethnocentrism and when to stick with it.

2. Prejudices

Prejudices('Prejudices')represents the wrong attitude, belief or feelings towards an individual or a group. These judgments of others are based on past decisions and experiences. Prejudices are generalizations that are difficult to change. Racial prejudice is common, but prejudice can also be related to age, gender and sexual orientation. Prejudice can be positive, but is much more often negative. We all have biases to some degree, and these judgments reduce our anxiety because our biases allow us to structure information about others in a certain way. Prejudice is actually more directed at ourselves than at others because our prejudices allow us to judge other people. Both ethnocentrism and prejudice cause us to make incomplete judgments about the experiences of others. Sometimes leaders themselves have to learn to deal with the prejudices of their followers because they have a certain idea of ​​what leaders are like.

The cultural dimension

Several scientists have triedDimensions(or characteristics) of cultures. Hall argues that cultures differ in their focus on the individual (individualistic cultures) and on the group (collectivist cultures). Trompenaars argues that cultures differ along two dimensions: (1) egalitarianism ("egalitarianism") versus hierarchy ("hierarchical") and (2) person-oriented versus task-oriented. Egalitarianism versus hierarchy concerns the extent to which cultures represent shared power or a hierarchical structure. People versus task orientation is about the extent to which cultures value social interaction versus task accomplishment. Hofstede's modeldimensions of culturesis the most well-known. He identified five cultural dimensions along which cultures differ: (1) power distance, (2) uncertainty avoidance, (3) individualism-collectivism, (4) masculinity-femininity ("masculinity-femininity"), and (5) long-term versus short-term conceptual orientation (“long-term versus short-term orientation”).

Das GLOBE-Projekt (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness)

The GLOBE project is a program that aims to increase our understanding of cross-cultural interactions and ensure that we better understand the relationship between culture and leadership. In this project, a great deal of knowledge has been gained so far about the relationship between culture and management, among other things through interviews and questionnaires. GLOBE researchers have identified nine dimensions of culture. These dimensions are discussed below.

1. Uncertainty Avoidance (Uncertainty Avoidance)

This dimension concerns the extent to which a society, organization or group relies on social norms, rituals and procedures to prevent uncertainty. Uncertainty avoidance is about how cultures use rules, structures and laws to make things more predictable.

2. Force distance (maybe distance)

This dimension focuses on the extent to which members of a group believe and expect that power should be distributed fairly. This concept is about how cultures think about power, authority, prestige, status and possessions.

3. institutional collectivism

This dimension focuses on the extent to which an organization or society stimulates institutional or social collective action. This idea is about whether cultures identify with social interests and not just with their own goals and successes.

4. collectivism in the group

This dimension is about the extent to which people express pride, loyalty and belonging in their home or work situation. This dimension is about the extent to which people are involved in their organization or family.

5. Equality ("gender egalitarianism")

This dimension measures the extent to which an organization or society minimizes gender role differences and advocates equality. It is about the extent to which cultures believe that gender should determine the role people play at home and at work.

6. assertiveness

This dimension is about the extent to which people in a culture are purposeful, assertive, confrontational and aggressive in their social relationships. Assertiveness is about the degree to which it is normal in a culture to be aggressive and tough rather than submissive, shy and soft.

7. Orientation towards the future ("future orientation")

This dimension measures the extent to which cultures are oriented towards the future, for example through planning. Future orientation occurs when people prepare for the future instead of simply living in the present.

8. performance orientation

This dimension describes the extent to which an organization or community encourages or rewards group members for performance and excellence. It is about how people respond to challenges when they are faced with them.

9. Human Orientation (Human Orientation)

The last dimension concerns the extent to which a culture encourages people to be honest, generous, caring and kind. Related to this is the degree to which a culture emphasizes social support and sensitivity to others.

cultures of the world

GLOBE researchers used the above nine dimensions to analyze 62 different countries around the world. They have grouped these countries into clusters so that differences between cultural groups can be more clearly identified and generalizations can be made about the relationship between culture and leadership. To form these clusters, scientists have taken into account factors such as geography, language, religion and historical events. The 62 countries were eventually divided into 10 clusters. Researchers have performed statistical analyzes to test whether these clusters are valid. As expected, they found dozens of peopleindeClusters showed more correlation than individual valuesvariousclusters. Based on this, the researchers came to the conclusion that each cluster is truly unique. The ten clusters are discussed below.

1. Anglo-Saxon cultures ("Anglo") > Canada, America, Australia, Ireland, England, South Africa (white part) and New Zealand

These cultures scorehochfor performance orientation andlavto collectivism in the group. Therefore, in these cultures it is normal to be competitive and result-oriented, but family ties are relatively less important.

2. Confucian Asia ("Confucian Asia") > Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, South Korea and Japan

These cultures scorehochon performance orientation, institutional collectivism and intragroup collectivism. In these cultures, it is normal to focus on results, but group interests are more important than individual interests. People in these cultures are very devoted and loyal to their families.

3. Eastern Europe > Greece, Hungary, Albania, Slovenia, Poland, Russia, Georgia and Kazakhstan

These countries scorehochabout assertiveness, group collectivism and equality. you scorelavachievement orientation, future orientation and uncertainty avoidance. In these countries it is normal to give a lot of support and to treat men and women equally, but it is less normal to be meritocratic, to plan and make rules and laws to maintain order.

4. Germanic Europe > Holland, Austria, Switzerland and Germany

These cultures scorehochPerformance orientation, self-confidence, future orientation and avoidance of uncertainty. you scorelavto institutional collectivism, group collectivism and human orientation. People in these cultures tend to focus on achievements rather than people and like to plan. They also like rules and laws. People in these countries are predominantly individualistic and less group oriented.

5. Latinamerika > Ecuador, El Salvador, Colombia, Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Argentina, Costa Rica, Venezuela and Mexico

These countries scorehochto collectivism within the group andlavon performance orientation, future orientation, institutional collectivism and avoidance of insecurity. People in these countries are loyal and devoted to their families.

6. Latin America Europe > Israel, Italy, Switzerland (French speaking), Spain, Portugal and France

These countries score above allAveragein most cultural dimensions, but yeslavon human orientation and institutional collectivism. In these countries the focus is mainly on individual autonomy and much less on the group.

7. Middle East > Turkey, Kuwait, Egypt, Morocco and Qatar

These countries scorehochto collectivism within the group andlavabout future orientation, equality and avoiding insecurity. The people of these countries are very proud of their families and their jobs. They are devoted and loyal to their own people. Women in these cultures have a lower status than men. Order and consistency are not considered very important in these countries, and people are more focused on the present than on the future.

8. Northern Europe > Denmark, Finland and Sweden

These countries scorehochabout future orientation, equality, institutional collectivism and uncertainty avoidance. However, they scorelavabout assertiveness, group collectivism and power distance. Long-term success is extremely important to them, and they believe that women are equal to men. They identify with their social environment, but less so with their own family. Rules, order and consistency are considered important in these countries, and power is fairly distributed. Cooperation is also considered important.

9. South Asia >Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Thailand and Iran

These countries scorehochon human orientation and collectivism within the group. Loyalty to family and interest in society are considered important in these countries.

10. Africa south of the Sahara> Zimbabwe, Namibia, Zambia, Nigeria, South Africa (variety part)

These countries scorehochfor human orientation. In these countries, consideration for others is considered very important. People in these countries value family and friends more than themselves.

Management and culture cluster

The goal of the GLOBE project is to find out how people in different cultures view leadership. GLOBE researchers also want to know which characteristics of cultures are associated with leadership behaviors within cultures. Therefore, the GLOBE researchers had to define leadership as well as culture. For this they used the 'implicit leadership theory'. This theory states that individuals have implicit beliefs about the characteristics that distinguish leaders from non-leaders and effective leaders from ineffective leaders. According to this theory, leadership is about what people see in other people who exhibit leadership behavior. GLOBE researchers have identified six common leadership behaviors. These worn garments are listed and discussed below.

1. „"Charismatic/value-based leadership":the ability to inspire and motivate others, but also to expect others to perform well based on their own values ​​and standards. This type of leadership focuses on reliability, performance and inspiration.

2. „"Team-oriented management":In this form of management, the focus is on building a team. Such a leader is cooperative, diplomatic and competent at an administrative level.

3. „"Participatory management":This has an impact on the extent to which managers involve others in the decision-making process. With this management style, it is important to be participative and not dominating.

4. „"People-Centered Leadership":Here, the emphasis is on support, care and generosity. Sensitivity to others is important in this leadership style.

5. „"Autonomous Leadership":This type of leadership goes hand in hand with independent and individualistic leadership that values ​​individuality and autonomy.

6. „"Self-protective leadership":This leadership style is about the safety of the leader and the group. A leader using this leadership style is mainly self-centered, assertive, procedural and conflict-inducing.

Clusters and leader profiles

GLOBE researchers have linked each of the ten clusters to a specific profile of leadership styles. Each of these profiles is shown schematically on pages 349-356. Below is a brief description of the leadership styles most and least characteristic of each cluster.

1. The Eastern European leadership profile

Eastern Europe's leadership profile is most characterized by autonomous and self-protective leadership and least by the participative leadership style. In this context, one also speaks of an independent and independent leader who does not involve others much in the decision-making process.

2. The Latin American Leadership Profile

Latin America's leadership profile is most characterized by charismatic/value-based leadership, team-oriented leadership and self-protective leadership and least by an independent leadership style. In these countries, a leader is charismatic, acts strongly based on his own values, inspires and collaborates with others. These managers also expect others to be involved in the decision-making process.

3. The Latin European leadership profile

Latin America's leadership profile is most characterized by charismatic/value-based leadership and least by autonomous leadership style and humane leadership style. Leadership in these countries is about inspiring, collaborating and participating, but little about compassion.

4. The Confucian Asian Leadership Profile

The leadership profile in Confucian Asia is most characterized by self-protective and team-oriented leadership and least by a participative leadership style. This means that others in these countries are little involved in decision-making.

5. The Northern European leadership profile

Northern Europe's management profile is most characterized by the charismatic/value-based management style and the participative management style and least by the humane and self-protective management style. Leaders in these countries are participative, independent and diplomatic, and they don't mind being very people-oriented. They also don't show much compassion for their followers.

6. The Anglo-Saxon leadership profile

The Anglo-Saxon management profile is characterized most by the charismatic/value-driven, participative and personal management style and least by the self-protective management style. This means that leadership in this culture is mainly associated with humanity, participation and sensitivity. These guides are therefore not authoritarian, but very stimulating. In these countries, people do not like leaders who try to protect their own status.

7. The leadership profile for Africa south of the Sahara

The leadership profile of sub-Saharan Africans is most strongly characterized by the human leadership style and least by the autonomous leadership style. This means that management is primarily about the competence of people. Managers should also not be independent and independent. They should consult and cooperate as much as possible.

8. The South Asian Leadership Profile

The South Asian management profile is most characterized by the self-protective management style and least by the participative management style. In this culture, leaders are above their followers and try to protect their leadership. Therefore, these managers do not involve others in the decision-making process.

9. The Germanic-European management profile

The Germanic-European leadership profile is characterized most by the autonomous leadership style and least by the self-protective leadership style. In this culture, leaders are independent but highly inspirational. Leaders focus on others and the team, but are not very aware of their own status.

10. Middle East Leadership Profile

The leadership profile in the Middle East is most strongly characterized by the self-protective leadership style and least by the participative leadership style. Status and independence are very important for countries from this part of the world. These managers also do not focus on the functioning of the team.

Desirable and undesirable leadership qualities

The GLOBE study also shows that 22 leadership qualities are used by people all over the worldestimated.These leadership qualities are shown schematically on page 357. Examples include honesty, reliability, and intelligence. It was also found that people around the world find eight personality traits unsuitable for leadership: (1) loneliness, (2) irritability, (3) reckless, (4) antisocial, (5) obscure, (6) dictatorial, (7) ). ) uncooperative and (8) being selfish.

Strengths in the culture and management approach

The culture and management approach has five strengths. These points are explained below.

1. A plus is that the GLOBE surveys covered more than 62 countries and that no less than 17,300 managers contributed to the research results.

2. The results of the GLOBE studies are valuable because they are based on a quantitative form of research. Because so many countries have been compared, the generalizability of the research findings is good.

3. In addition, the GLOBE studies offer a broader categorization of cultural dimensions than, for example, the Hofstede model. For example, Hofstede uses only four dimensions of culture, while the GLOBE model uses nine. Certain cultural dimensions of the GLOBE model are based on Hofstede's model.

4. The GLOBE surveys also provide insight into what people around the world see as desirable and undesirable leadership qualities. For example, people around the world recognize good leadership in charisma, integrity and interpersonal skills. Bad leadership occurs precisely when leaders are egocentric, antisocial and dictatorial.

5. A final point is that research into the relationship between culture and leadership shows that leadership is complex and influenced by cultural factors. The GLOBE studies show that we should not be ethnocentric and only look at leadership from our own perspective. We need to better understand how people from other cultures view leadership.

Disadvantages of the culture-and-management approach

The five weaknesses of this approach are described below.

1. It is clear that the GLOBE studies have been very instructive. However, no general theory of the relationship between culture and leadership has been developed on the basis of these studies.

2. Another point of criticism is that the nine cultural dimensions have unclear names. For example, it is not immediately clear what power distance means. As a result, it is sometimes difficult to know exactly what research says about the relationship between culture and leadership.

3. Another error concerns the way leadership is described in the GLOBE studies. These studies base their view of leadership on Lord's implicit leadership theory. This scholar describes leadership as a way of processing information and talks about the implicit beliefs followers have about their leaders. The Lord therefore sees leadership mainly from the perspective of followers and not from the behavior of leaders.

4. Another point of criticism concerns the way in which leadership is measured in the GLOBE studies, using six leadership styles. These leadership styles also appear to have subscales, but they encompass many different patterns of behavior, so it is not clear how valid it is to measure leadership in this way.

5. Finally, the GLOBE surveys provide a picture of generally accepted leadership qualities that are considered desirable or undesirable. However, the influence of situations on leadership qualities has not been investigated.

Application and measuring equipment

There are many training courses on the market today that teach people to deal with diversity and other cultures. It is important to understand the influence of culture on behavior. In this way, managers can understand their own cultural misunderstandings and preferences. In addition, this training enables them to understand what a good leader is. Different cultures have different ideas about what constitutes good leadership. Based on this information, a manager can adjust his management style. You can also say that knowledge of culture can ensure that managers can better communicate with employees or managers of companies in other countries. Culture and management are often measured in different ways and through different questionnaires. There are currently no questionnaires that measure both concepts simultaneously. Culture is often measured with Hofstede's work culture questionnaire. This questionnaire measures an individual's cultural preferences through four dimensions: (1) individualism, (2) power distance, (3) security, and (4) achievement. The Dimensions of Culture questionnaire was widely used in the GLOBE surveys. By completing this questionnaire, people can see how they feel about various characteristics of their own culture. Part O: Management and Ethics

guidelines

This chapter examines the relationship between ethics and management. This chapter does not describe a specific theory of ethical leadership, but only discusses guidelines that managers can use to lead well. History books often describe leadership ethics, and we know who are 'good' and 'bad' leaders. In the scientific field, however, not much has been written about the relationship between ethics and management. The first article specifically dealing with management ethics did not appear until 1996. This chapter discusses Heifetz, MacGregor, Burns, and Greenleaf's perspectives on management ethics. Five principles of management ethics are also discussed: (1) respect, (2) service, (3) justice, (4) fairness ("honesty"), and (5) community spirit ("community").

The definition of ethics

Plato and Aristotle already talked about the importance of ethics. The word ethics comes from"Ethos", meaning character or behavior. Ethics is about the values ​​and morals that an individual or society considers desirable. Through ethics we know what is right and wrong. Leadership ethics is about who leaders are and how they behave. In any situation where a decision has to be made, ethics play an implicit or explicit role.

theories of ethics

Ethical theories can be divided into two categories: (1) Behavioral theories('Behavior')of leaders and (2) character theories('Character')of managers. Theories of managerial behavior can be further divided into two categories: (1) Consequence theories('Consequences')of leadership behavior and (2) theories of the rules("Mandatory"/"Rules")of leadership behavior.

1. The consequences of leadership

Theories that deal with the consequences of managerial behavior are also referred to as 'teleological' theories. From the behavior of a leader, we can distinguish between behavior with good consequences and behavior with bad consequences. There are three approaches to making decisions about moral behavior in this context:(1) ethical egoism ("ethical egoism"), (2) use ("utilitarianism")I(3) altruism. ethical egoismstates that a person should behave in such a way that he/she gets as much as possible. Self-interest is therefore very important in this approach. Byuseoccurs when we behave in a way that benefits the majority.altruismis an approach that says that actions are ethical when the primary goal is to put the interests of others first. Ethical egoism is actually the opposite of altruism. Ethical egoism puts self-interest first and altruism puts the interests of others first.

The "duty" approach (also called "deontological theory") implies that ethics is not about the consequences of behavior, but that ethics is about whether a behavior in itself is good or bad. For example, not sharing secrets or being honest with others are behaviors that are good in themselves, regardless of the consequences. This approach says that we should focus on people's moral obligations and responsibilities to judge whether they have behaved properly. For example, when Bill Clinton lied about his affair, he failed his ethical responsibility to tell the truth.

2. The character of a leader

Theories that deal primarily with the character of leaders are sometimes referred to as "virtue-based."

so-called theories. These theories focus on who leaders are. These theories state that moral abilities are not innate but can be learned. They also argue that we should not tell people what to doagain, but as it should beIs.

The importance of management ethics

Leaders have a responsibility to treat their followers with respect. They must be aware of the needs of their followers. They also need to see their followers as unique people. Three perspectives on management ethics are listed and discussed below.

1. Heifetz' perspective on management ethics

Heifetz argues that it is especially important for leaders to encourage their followers to confront conflict and initiate change to eliminate conflict. For this process, the leader's values ​​are important, but so are the follower's values. Heifetz argues that leaders can use their authority to help their followers navigate conflicting values ​​created by changing work environments. Leaders must also create an atmosphere of trust and empathy that makes their followers feel comfortable tackling difficult issues.

2. Burns' perspective on management ethics

It was already discussed in the ninth chapter that Burns invented the transformative management approach. It focuses especially on the needs, values ​​and morals of the followers. When leaders use transformational leadership, they try to ensure that their followers have a higher level of moral responsibility. Burns therefore argues that leadership clearly has a moral dimension. Like Heifetz, Burns argues that leaders should encourage their followers to manage conflicting values ​​well. Burns argues that leadership ethics should ensure that followers develop morally. However, Burns' view has been criticized. For example, how do we know what real moral values ​​are? If leadership serves to improve people's morale, do the leadership techniques of corrupt leaders no longer fall under leadership?

3. Greenleaf's perspective on management ethics

The Greenleaf approach will"serving leadership"called. This approach was developed in the 1970s and is very popular today. With this approach, Greenleaf argues that leaders should be aware of their followers' concerns. Leaders must also take care of their followers. Greenleaf argued that leadership is particularly suited to people who naturally want to serve others ("servants"). Such people focus on the needs of their followers and help them become more free and autonomous. Greenleaf argues that listening, empathy and unconditional acceptance of others are the hallmarks of good leaders. A servant leader uses little institutional power and control and believes that everyone should contribute to the functioning of the group. There is increasing attention for this approach to management ethics. However, it is still difficult to define the characteristics of "servant leadership" because the term is not clearly defined. Various questionnaires have therefore been developed to investigate this form of management. Still, it can be said that for this approach the relationship between leader and follower is a core principle.

principles of ethical management

Below are five leadership qualities that are important for effective leadership.

1. Ethical leaders must respect others

Kant already said that we should treat others with respect. We must see others as independent individuals and never use them for our own benefit. Respectful leaders listen to their followers, are empathetic and tolerant of other perspectives.

2. Ethical leaders must serve others

The fact that ethical leaders must serve others indicates altruism. Leaders can express their altruistic vision by, for example, acting as a mentor. Leaders who want to serve others act ethically.

3. Ethical leaders must be honest

Ethical leaders are about fairness and justice. They think it is important to treat people equally. You will therefore not favor some followers. Beauchamp and Bowie developed several guidelines that leaders can use to fairly distribute the fun and less fun aspects of the job among all followers. For example, every follower must have equal opportunities, but everyone must also be rewarded according to their own efforts.

4. Ethical leaders must be honest

Good leaders are honest. This ensures that others can trust and rely on them. If leaders are not honest, they will not be respected by their followers. Being honest is not just telling the truth. Honesty also means that leaders are open to others and explain reality as best they can.

5. Ethical leaders must foster a sense of community

We define leadership as a process by which an individual influences another person or group to achieve somethingcommon goalwhen. Because followers and leaders must work together to achieve a common goal, a sense of community quickly develops. Together with the leader, the followers can decide which direction they want to take in the company. Leaders cannot impose their will on their followers. Caring for others is the hallmarkauthenticTransformational leaders andPseudo-transformation guidance. Burns argues that transformational leaders can lead a group toward a common goal while taking societal and cultural interests into account.

Strengths of the management ethics approach

Three strengths of this approach are discussed below.

1. First of all, it is good that there is an approach that emphasizes that a manager must act ethically. Because we need leaders with a strong sense of morality. Politics shows often enough that leaders do not always behave ethically. Consider, in this context, Bush declaring war on Iraq on grounds that turn out to be untrue.

2. In addition, research shows that ethics should be an important part of management. Only the authentic and transformative management approaches have focused on the importance of ethics for managers. This chapter also emphasizes that management cannot be separated from ethics.

3. We can also say something about the principles that are important for the development of ethical management based on various studies. Philosophers have pondered these principles for over 2,000 years.

Disadvantages of the management ethics approach

This approach has two disadvantages. These points are discussed below.

1. Since this approach is still relatively new, it cannot be supported by much research. Only a few studies have been published on the theoretical basis of ethical leadership.

2. Another point of criticism is that information on management ethics is mainly conveyed on the basis of essays and a number of scientific articles. For example, the ideas of Greenleaf and Burns have not been validated by scientific research methods.

Application and measuring equipment

Training programs based on this management approach have not yet been developed. Many programs focus on making managers more effective, but few training programs focus specifically on improving management ethics. Nevertheless, management ethics is very important, as management always isassociated with values. Good leaders must understand their own values. PLIS (Perceived Leader Integrity Scale) is a test used to measure a leader's ethics by having their followers fill out a questionnaire about them. Followers should indicate whether a leader behaves in a way that benefits the majority.

Part P: Management and Ethics

guidelines

This chapter examines the relationship between ethics and management. This chapter does not describe a specific theory of ethical leadership, but only discusses guidelines that managers can use to lead well. History books often describe leadership ethics, and we know who are 'good' and 'bad' leaders. In the scientific field, however, not much has been written about the relationship between ethics and management. The first article specifically dealing with management ethics did not appear until 1996. This chapter discusses Heifetz, MacGregor, Burns, and Greenleaf's perspectives on management ethics. Five principles of management ethics are also discussed: (1) respect, (2) service, (3) justice, (4) fairness ("honesty"), and (5) community spirit ("community").

The definition of ethics

Plato and Aristotle already talked about the importance of ethics. The word ethics comes from"Ethos", meaning character or behavior. Ethics is about the values ​​and morals that an individual or society considers desirable. Through ethics we know what is right and wrong. Leadership ethics is about who leaders are and how they behave. In any situation where a decision has to be made, ethics play an implicit or explicit role.

theories of ethics

Ethical theories can be divided into two categories: (1) Behavioral theories('Behavior')of leaders and (2) character theories('Character')of managers. Theories of managerial behavior can be further divided into two categories: (1) Consequence theories('Consequences')of leadership behavior and (2) theories of the rules("Mandatory"/"Rules")of leadership behavior.

1. The consequences of leadership

Theories that deal with the consequences of managerial behavior are also referred to as 'teleological' theories. From the behavior of a leader, we can distinguish between behavior with good consequences and behavior with bad consequences. There are three approaches to making decisions about moral behavior in this context:(1) ethical egoism ("ethical egoism"), (2) use ("utilitarianism")I(3) altruism. ethical egoismstates that a person should behave in such a way that he/she gets as much as possible. Self-interest is therefore very important in this approach. Byuseoccurs when we behave in a way that benefits the majority.altruismis an approach that says that actions are ethical when the primary goal is to put the interests of others first. Ethical egoism is actually the opposite of altruism. Ethical egoism puts self-interest first and altruism puts the interests of others first.

The "duty" approach (also called "deontological theory") implies that ethics is not about the consequences of behavior, but that ethics is about whether a behavior in itself is good or bad. For example, not sharing secrets or being honest with others are behaviors that are good in themselves, regardless of the consequences. This approach says that we should focus on people's moral obligations and responsibilities to judge whether they have behaved properly. For example, when Bill Clinton lied about his affair, he failed his ethical responsibility to tell the truth.

2. The character of a leader

Theories that deal primarily with the character of leaders are sometimes referred to as "virtue-based."

so-called theories. These theories focus on who leaders are. These theories state that moral abilities are not innate but can be learned. They also argue that we should not tell people what to doagain, but as it should beIs.

The importance of management ethics

Leaders have a responsibility to treat their followers with respect. They must be aware of the needs of their followers. They also need to see their followers as unique people. Three perspectives on management ethics are listed and discussed below.

1. Heifetz' perspective on management ethics

Heifetz argues that it is especially important for leaders to encourage their followers to confront conflict and initiate change to eliminate conflict. For this process, the leader's values ​​are important, but so are the follower's values. Heifetz argues that leaders can use their authority to help their followers navigate conflicting values ​​created by changing work environments. Leaders must also create an atmosphere of trust and empathy that makes their followers feel comfortable tackling difficult issues.

2. Burns' perspective on management ethics

It was already discussed in the ninth chapter that Burns invented the transformative management approach. It focuses especially on the needs, values ​​and morals of the followers. When leaders use transformational leadership, they try to ensure that their followers have a higher level of moral responsibility. Burns therefore argues that leadership clearly has a moral dimension. Like Heifetz, Burns argues that leaders should encourage their followers to manage conflicting values ​​well. Burns argues that leadership ethics should ensure that followers develop morally. However, Burns' view has been criticized. For example, how do we know what real moral values ​​are? If leadership serves to improve people's morale, do the leadership techniques of corrupt leaders no longer fall under leadership?

3. Greenleaf's perspective on management ethics

The Greenleaf approach will"serving leadership"called. This approach was developed in the 1970s and is very popular today. With this approach, Greenleaf argues that leaders should be aware of their followers' concerns. Leaders must also take care of their followers. Greenleaf argued that leadership is particularly suited to people who naturally want to serve others ("servants"). Such people focus on the needs of their followers and help them become more free and autonomous. Greenleaf argues that listening, empathy and unconditional acceptance of others are the hallmarks of good leaders. A servant leader uses little institutional power and control and believes that everyone should contribute to the group's functioning. There is increasing attention for this approach to management ethics. However, it is still difficult to define the characteristics of "servant leadership" because the term is not clearly defined. Various questionnaires have therefore been developed to investigate this form of management. Still, it can be said that for this approach the relationship between leader and follower is a core principle.

principles of ethical management

Below are five leadership qualities that are important for effective leadership.

1. Ethical leaders must respect others

Kant already said that we should treat others with respect. We must see others as independent individuals and never use them for our own benefit. Respectful leaders listen to their followers, are empathetic and tolerant of other perspectives.

2. Ethical leaders must serve others

The fact that ethical leaders must serve others indicates altruism. Leaders can express their altruistic vision by, for example, acting as a mentor. Leaders who want to serve others act ethically.

3. Ethical leaders must be honest

Ethical leaders are about fairness and justice. They think it is important to treat people equally. You will therefore not favor some followers. Beauchamp and Bowie developed several guidelines that leaders can use to fairly distribute the fun and less fun aspects of the job among all followers. For example, every follower must have equal opportunities, but everyone must also be rewarded according to their own efforts.

4. Ethical leaders must be honest

Good leaders are honest. This ensures that others can trust and rely on them. If leaders are not honest, they will not be respected by their followers. Being honest is not just telling the truth. Honesty also means that leaders are open to others and explain reality as best they can.

5. Ethical leaders must foster a sense of community

We define leadership as a process by which an individual influences another person or group to achieve somethingcommon goalwhen. Because followers and leaders must work together to achieve a common goal, a sense of community quickly develops. Together with the leader, the followers can decide which direction they want to take in the company. Leaders cannot impose their will on their followers. Caring for others is the hallmarkauthenticTransformational leaders andPseudo-transformation guidance. Burns argues that transformational leaders can lead a group toward a common goal while taking societal and cultural interests into account.

Strengths of the management ethics approach

Three strengths of this approach are discussed below.

1. First of all, it is good that there is an approach that emphasizes that a manager must act ethically. Because we need leaders with a strong sense of morality. Politics shows often enough that leaders do not always behave ethically. Consider, in this context, Bush declaring war on Iraq on grounds that turn out to be untrue.

2. In addition, research shows that ethics should be an important part of management. Only the authentic and transformative management approaches have focused on the importance of ethics for managers. This chapter also emphasizes that management cannot be separated from ethics.

3. We can also say something about the principles that are important for the development of ethical management based on various studies. Philosophers have pondered these principles for over 2,000 years.

Disadvantages of the management ethics approach

This approach has two disadvantages. These points are discussed below.

1. Since this approach is still relatively new, it cannot be supported by much research. Only a few studies have been published on the theoretical basis of ethical leadership.

2. Another point of criticism is that information on management ethics is mainly conveyed on the basis of essays and a number of scientific articles. For example, the ideas of Greenleaf and Burns have not been validated by scientific research methods.

Application and measuring equipment

Training programs based on this management approach have not yet been developed. Many programs focus on making managers more effective, but few training programs focus specifically on improving management ethics. Nevertheless, management ethics is very important, as management always isassociated with values. Good leaders must understand their own values. PLIS (Perceived Leader Integrity Scale) is a test used to measure a leader's ethics by having their followers fill out a questionnaire about them. Followers should indicate whether a leader behaves in a way that benefits the majority.